THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


OUTLINES 


PHYSIOLOGY, 


COMPARATIVE    AND   HUMAN; 

IN  WHICH  ARE   DESCRIBED  THE 

MECHANICAL,  ANIMAL,  VITAL,  AND  SENSORIAL  ORGANS, 
AND   FUNCTIONS; 

INCLUDING  THOSE  OF 

RESPIRATION,  CIRCULATION,  DIGESTION,  AUDITION   AND  VISION, 

AS  THEY   EXIST  IN   THE   DIFFERENT   ORDERS   OF    ANIMALS, 

FROM    THE   SPONGE  TO    MAN. 

ALSO, 
THE  APPLICATION  OF  THESE  PRINCIPLES 

TO 

MUSCULAR    EXERCISE, 

AND 
FEMALE     FASHIONS,    AND    DEFORMITIES. 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  NUMEROUS  ENGRAVINGS. 

Intended  for  the  Use  of  Schools  and  Heads  of  Families. 

BY  j.  L.  ccmsjrocK,  M.  rr. 

AUTHOR  OP  "  MINERALOGY,"   "  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY,"  "  CHEMISTRY." 

"BOTANY,"  "GEOLOGY,"  etc. 


NEW    YORK. 
ROBINSON,    PRAT.T    &f   C  O . 

259   PEARL   STREET. 

1836. 


At     *        ft 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1836,  by 

J  .  L .  C  O  M  S  T  O  C  K , 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut. 


CASE,  TIFFANY  &  CO.,  PRINTERS. 


PREFACE. 


PERHAPS  the  author  of  the  following  work  cannot  do  better  than 
to  make  an  extract  or  two,  by  way  of  Preface,  from  Dr.  DICK,  "  On 
Mental  Illumination  and  Moral  Improvement,"  in  which  he  has 
shown  the  want  of,  and  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from,  a  trea- 
tise on  Comparative  and  Human  Physiology  for  the  instruction  of 
youth.  That  a  work  on  these  subjects  is  wanted,  it  is  believed 
every  intelligent  Instructor  is  ready  to  acknowledge ;  and  whether 
that  here  offered  to  the  public  will  serve  the  required  purpose, 
must  now  be  submitted  to  the  judgment  of  others. 

"  It  is  somewhat  unaccountable,"  says  Dr.  DICK,  "  and  not  a  little 
inconsistent,  that  while  we  direct  the  young  to  look  abroad  over 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  survey  its  mountains,  rivers,  seas,  and 
continents,  and  guide  their  views  to  the  regions  of  the  firmament, 
where  they  may  contemplate  the  moons  of  Jupiter,  the  rings  of  Saturn, 
and  thousands  of  luminaries  placed  at  immeasurable  distances, —  *  * 
that  we  should  never  teach  them  to  look  into  themselves,  to  con- 
sider their  own  corporeal  structures,  the  numerous  parts  of  which 
they  are  composed ;  the  admirable  functions  they  perform  ;  the  wis- 
dom and  goodness  displayed  in  their  mechanism,  and  the  lessons  of 
practical  instruction  which  may  be  derived  from  such  contempla- 
tions." 

Again,  the  same  author,  speaking  of  subjects  for  Natural  The- 
ology, enumerates  "  particularly,  the  curious  and  admirable  mechan- 
ism displayed  in  the  construction  of  animated  beings,  from  the  mi- 
croscopic animalcula,  ten  hundred  thousand  times  less  than  a  visi- 
ble point,  to  the  elephant  and  the  whale — the  organs  of  mastication, 
deglutition,  digestion,  and  secretion,  all  differently  contrived,  accor- 
ding to  the  structure  of  the  animal,  and  the  aliments  on  which  they 
feed — the  eyes  of  insects,  and  the  thousands  of  transparent  globules 
of  which  they  consist — the  metamorphoses  of  caterpillars  and  other 
insects,  and  the  peculiar  organization  adapted  to  each  state  of  their 
existence — the  numerous  beauties,  and  minute  adaptation  in  the 
wings,  feet,  probosces,  and  feathers,  of  gnats  and  other'insects — the 
respiratory  apparatus  of  fishes,  and  the  nice  adaptation  of  their 
bodies  to  the  watery  fluid  in  which  they  pass  their  existence — the 
construction  of  birds,  their  pointed  bills  to  penetrate  the  air,  their 
flexible  tails  serving  for  rudders,  the  lightness,  strength,  and  tena- 
city of  their  feathers,  and  the  whole  structure  of  their  bodies  adap- 


IV  PREFACE. 

ted  to  the  air  in  which  they  fly,  and  the  food  by  which  they  are 
sustained — above  all,  the  wonders  of  the  human  frame,  the  numer- 
ous parts  of  which  it  is  composed;  the  hundreds  of  bones,  and  mus- 
cles, the  thousands  of  veins  and  arteries,  glands,  nerves,  and  lympha- 
tics— the  heart  with  its  ventricles  and  auricles,  the  brain,  with  its 
infinity  of  fibres,  the  lungs  with  their  millions  of  vesicles,  *  * 
— 'these  and  thousands  of  similar  objects,  adaptation  and  contrivan- 
ces will  afford  ample  scope  for  expatiating  on  the  power,  wisdom, 
and  intelligence  of  the  Almighty  Creator,  and  the  benevolent  con- 
trivances which  appear  throughout  every  part  of  the  universal 
system." 

"One  great  practical  end,"  says  he, c<  which  should  always  be  kept 
in  view  in  the  study  of  physiology  is  the  invigoration  and  improve- 
ment of  the  corporeal  powers,  and  functions,  the  preservation  of 
health,  and  the  prevention  of  disease." 

All  these,  and  many  other  subjects  of  a  similar  nature  are  noticed 
in  this  volume,  and  if  the  author  has  succeeded  in  adapting  his  lan- 
guage and  manner  to  the  understanding  of  youth,  he  cannot  but 
hope  that  this  treatise  will  be  the  means  of  greatly  increasing  the 
knowledge  of  the  rising  generation,  in  one  of  the  most  interesting 
and  useful  departments  of  natural  science;  and  at  the  same  time  of 
directing  their  attention,  especially  that  of  females,  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  their  forms,  and  their  health,  by  avoiding  habits  and  fashions, 
which  at  once  deform  their  persons  and  ruin  their  constitutions. 

To  avoid  the  necessity  of  frequently  quoting  authorities,  we  sub- 
join a  list  of  authors  which  have  been  consulted  in  the  progress  of 
the  more  strictly  physiological  part  of  this  work,  the  application  of 
these  principles  towards  the  sequel,  being  chiefly  the  original  sug- 
gestions of  the  author. 

Among  the  authors  consulted,  we  are  especially  indebted  to  the 
"  Bridgewater  Treatise,  on  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology,"  by 
Mr.  Roget.  From  this,  much  matter  and  many  cuts  have  been 
taken. 

Dr.  Ticknor  "  On  the  Philosophy  of  Living,"  Harpers'  Family 
Library,  No.  77,  contains  a  mass  of  sound  and  valuable  observations 
on  many  of  the  various  subjects  on  which  it  treats,  but  was  un- 
known to  the  author,  until  too  late  for  him  to  take  much  advantage 
from  the  matter  it  contains.  Dr.  Alcott's  little  book,  "  The  House 
I  live  in,"  is  an  original  and  curious  treatise,  and  is  well  calculated 
to  arrest  the  attention  of  children,  and  to  instruct  them  with  respect 
to  the  structure  of  their  bodies. 

Dr.  Combe's  Physiology,  No.  77  Harpers'  Family  Library,  is  a 
highly  valuable  and  sufficiently  popular  work  on  the  subject,  and 
ought  to  be  read  by  every  parent,  and  school  teacher. 

The  author  expected  to  have  inserted  at  the  close  of  the  volume, 
a  short  treatise  on  the  peculiar  application  of  Callisthenics,  guided 
by  music,  as  an  exciting  and  proper  exercise  for  young  ladies,  but 
have  to  regret  that  it  was  not  received  in  time,  and  therefore  must 
be  deferred  until  the  next  edition.  It  is  by  Miss  C.  E.  Beecher. 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  July  1836. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

PHYSIOLOGY  EXPLAINED,            -     ' 

15 

PART  I. 

Mechanical  Functions, 

16 

Sponge,        -                        '-• 

16 

Polypifera, 

19 

Hydra,          - 

22 

Pennatulse,   - 

24 

Infusoria,     - 

26 

Wheel  Animal,     - 

27 

Portuguese  Man-of  War, 
Sea  Urchin,           - 

28 
29 

Mollusca,      -•'-".    - 

30 

Acephala,     -        -        -.•»/*  • 

31 

Cardium,      -      ''•'•"- 
Cuttlefish,   - 

33 
34 

Articulata,    - 

35 

Crustacea,    - 

35 

Lobster,        - 

36 

Process  of  casting  the  shell  of, 

36 

Insects,         - 

38 

Changes  in  the  forms  of  Insects, 

38 

Silk  Worm, 

40 

Metamorphoses  of  Insects,    - 
Larva  that  feeds  on  the  pars- 

41 

nip,                        -        -  , 
Butterflies  and  Moths, 

42 
44 

Change    from    Chrysalis  to 

Butterfly, 
Wings  of  the  Butterfly,  how 

45 

expanded,      -       ,  -       ._.-  ; 

47 

Scales  on  the  wings,     -  .  ^ 

48 

Red  drops  emitted  by  Butter- 

flies,     -        -        -      "-    ', 

49 

Ancient  showers  of  Blood,    - 

50 

Tusseh  silk  worm,     ,   -       " 

54 

Beetles,         -        -        -  "      - 

55 

Blind  beetles,        ... 

56 

White  worm,        ... 

56 

Mantis,        .... 

59 

Musqueto,    - 

62 

Structure  of  Insects, 

64 

Insects  walk  by  atmospheric 

pressure, 

68 

Ingenuity  of  Insects,  70 

Caddis  worm,  72 

PART  II. 

VETEBRATED   ANIMALS,  75 

Animals  resist  heat  and  cold,  76 

Structure  of  the  bones,  80 

Formation  and  growth  of  bone,  83 

Spine  of  the  vertebrata,  -  84 

Form  of  the  vertebra,  85 
Skeleton  of  the  human  trunk 

and  arms,  86 

Unity  manifested  in  the  spines,  88 
Mechanical  elements  of  the 

vertebra,  89 

Vertebra  of  Fish,  -  -  90 

Locomotion  of  Fishes,  -  91 

Spines  of  Birds  and  Fishes,  -  95 

Skeleton  of  the  Swan,  -  -  95 
Comparison  of  the  bones  of 

Men  and  Birds,    -        -  96  . 


PART  III. 


97 
98 
98 
98 


ANIMAL   FUNCTIONS, 

Sources  of  Nutrition,     - 
Vegetable  food,    -    -  Vrrivv 
Animal  food,        - 
Relation  between  animals  and 

their  food,  -     100 

Man  omnivorous,          -        -     100 

Animal  Nutrition,  -  -  101 
Complexity  of  Stomach  in  the 

high  orders,   -  102 

Man  eats  every  thing,  -        -  102 

Grinding  of  Food,  -  -  103 
Grinding  in  the  Lobster,  -  104 
Gizzards  of  Birds,  -  -  104 

Organs  of  nutrition  and  vi- 
tality in  the  Mammalia,  106 

Plan  of  the  most  important 

Viscera,  -  -  107 

Circulation  of  the  blood,       -     109 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Mastication,         -  101 

Teeth  of  Man,    -        -        -  111 

Teeth  of  the  Tiger,       -        -  112 

Teeth  of  the  Antelope,  ••        -  113 

Teeth  of  the  Rat,          -        -  114 
Masticating  organs  of  Man 

and  the  Mammalia,        -  114 

Organs  of  Digestion,   -        -  116 
Human  Stomach,         -        -  116 
Gastric  juice,        -        -        -  117 
Chemical  effects  of  the  Gas- 
tric juice,       -        -        -  118 

Comparative  Digestion,       -  119 

Stomach  of  the  Sheep,  -        -  119 

Rumination,         -  121 
Relation    of  the   horns  and 

stomach,        -  121 
Water  cells  in  Camels'  stom- 
ach,      ....  121 
Water    cells    in    Elephants' 

stomach,        -        -        -  .  122 

Food  of  Man  and  other  Ani- 
mals, -  -  -  -  123 
Elements  of  Nutrition,  -  -  123 
Food  nutritive  and  digestible,  123 
Man  requires  a  variety  of  food,  124 
Dr.  Starks'  Experiments,  -  125 
Dr.  Magendie's  Experiments,  126 
Dr.  Cooper's  Experiments,  -  126 
•.  Beaumont's  Ex 


Dr 


xperiments,    127 


PART  IV. 


CIRCULATION   OP   THE   BLOOD,  131 

Circulation  in  Insects,  -        -  132 

Circulation  in  the  Frog,        -  133 

Circulation  in  Fishes,  -        -  134 
Circulation  in  warm  blooded 

Animals,       -        -        -  135 

Two  hearts  separated,  -        -  136 

Two  hearts  united,       -        -  136 

The  two  hearts  act  together,  138 
Number  of  pulsations  of  the 

heart,                              -  138 
Effects  of  Alcohol  on  the  cir- 
culation,        -        -        -  139 
Alcohol  not  the  product  of  dis- 
tillation,        -  140 
Muscular  force  of  the  heart,  142 

Respiration,          ..        -        -  143 

Respiration,  in  the  Oyster,    -  144 

Respiration  in  Fishes,  -        -  145 

Respiration  in  the  Lamprey,  146 


Page. 

Atmospheric  Respiration,     -  146 

Respiration  in  Insects,  -        -  147 

Respiration  in  Reptiles,         -  148 

Respiration  in  the  Frog,        -  149 

Respiration  in  Birds,   -        -  150 

Lungs  of  the  Ostrich,    -        -  151 

Respiration  in  the  Mammalia,  153 
Respiration  in  Man,  -  -  153 
Trunk  of  the  Human  Skeleton,  154 
Situation  of  the  diaphragm,  155 
Human  lungs  and  heart,  -  156 
Chemical  effects  of  Respira- 
tion, -  157 
Animal  heat,  -  159 

PART  V. 

SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS,     -            -  160 

Brain  and  Nerves,        -        -  160 

Nervous  Ganglions,     -        -  162 

Vision,         -        -        -        -  163 

Structure  of  the  Human  Eye,  163 

Structure  of  the  Iris,     ••        -  165 

Physiology  of  Vision,  -        -  166 

Cause  of  the  inverted  image.  169 

Motions  of  the  Eye,      -        -  173 
Magnitudes  and  distances,  174 
Insensibility    to  certain  col- 
ors,       ....  177 
Comparative   Physiology  of 

Vision,          -        -        -  178 

Eyes  of  Insects,    -        -        -  179 

Eyes  of  Fishes,     -        -        -  182 

Eyes  of  Birds,       -        -        -  183 

Audition,  or  Hearing,  •  185 

Auditory  organs  in  Man,  -  187 

Bones  of  the  Ear,  -  -  190 

Physiology  of  hearing,  -  192 
Comparative  Physiology  of 

hearing,  -  -  -  193 

Hearing  in  the  Lobster,  -  194 

Hearing  in  the  Frog,  -  -  194 

Hearing  in  Birds,  -  -  196 

Musical  Ear,  -  -  -  197 
Musical  Ear  situated  in  the 

Brain,  -        -        -        -  199 

Organs  of  Smell,          -        -  200 
Olfactory  nerves  in  the  Duck,  201 
Audubonon  the  smell  of  Vul- 
tures,    -        -        -        -  202 


CONTENTS. 


Vll 


Page,  i  Page. 

Organs  of  smell  in  Fishes,    -    203  Men  bound  to  use  such  exer- 
cise as  conduces  to  health,  244 


Organs  of  Taste , 
Organs  of  Touch, 


-  204 

-  205 


PART  VI. 


MENTAL    AND  PHYSICAL    EXER- 
CISE,        -  -  -  -      207 


The  Brain, 
Size  of  the  Brain. 


-  207 

-  208 


Phrenology,  -  209 
Phrenology  wants  more  facts,  210 

Roget's  Opinion,           -        -  211 

Bostock's  Sentiments,  -        -  211 

Double  Organs,    -  217 

Susceptibility  of  the  Bruin,    -  218 

Of  the  Muscles,  -  -  -  220 
Action  of  the  Muscles  depend 

on  the  Brain,  -  -  220 

Muscular  contraction,  -  -  220 

Mechanism  of  the  Muscles,  221 
Muscular  action  of  the  Arm 

and  Hand,  -  222 

Motions  of  the  Fingers,  -  225 

Connection  between  the  Nervous 

and  Muscular  Systems,  227 
Temperament  and  Disposition,  230 
Force  of  muscular  contraction,  231 
Thomas  Topham,  -  -  232 
Increasing  the  muscular  pow- 
ers, -  233 

Practical  inferences  from  the 

foregoing  principles,  -  235 

Connection  between  the  Brain 

and  Muscles,  -  -  235 

Muscular  exercise  of  the  Cler- 
gy and  other  Literary 

Men,  -  236 

Obvious  effects  of  too  much 

mental  labor,  -  -  237 

Clergymen  not  allowed  excit- 
ing exercise;  -  -  238 

Men  incapable  of  constant 

mental  labor,  -  -  239 

Former  condition  of  the  Cler- 
gy, -  -  -  -  240 

Different  effects  of  Exercise,  241 

Muscular  exercise  requires  ce- 
rebral excitement,  -  242 

Dr.  Darwin's  case,        -        -  242 

Nature  requires  exciting  exer- 
cise, 243 


Effects  of  incessant  mental  la- 
bor, -  245 

Mere  attention  to  diet  of  little 

use,  -  246 

Cheerfulness  a  remedy,         -  247 

Laughing  a  proper  exercise,  249 

Different  kinds  of  muscular 


exercise, 
Manual  Labor, 


251 
251 
251 
251 
254 
256 


Scientific  Excursions,  -  -,  ( ^  - 
i  Field  Sports,  -  -  ,'  . 
Angling,  "-'.' 

Riding,  .... 
Exciting  exercise  absolutely 

necessary  to  the  studious,    259 
Sir  Walter  Scott  an  example,    260 

Physical  and  Mental  Educa- 
tion of  Youth,        -        -  262 
Consequences  of  confined  po- 
sition of  Females  at  school,  263 
Remarks  of  Dr.  Combe,        -  264 
Remarks  of  Dr.  Dick,  -        -  267 
Callisthenics,        ...  270 
Archery,      -  270 
Selection  of  Bows  and  Arrows,  272 

APPENDIX. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ATTITUDES,    277 

Standing,  -  277 
The  Foot,  ....  279 
Walking,  -  281 
Pedestrianism,  -  .  .-•«  ,'  -  282 
Sitting,  .....  282 
Causes  of  spinal  curvatures,  283 
Sitting  postures  described,  -  285 
Leaning  posture,  -  -  286 
Dress  a  source  of  deformity,  288 
Fashionable  Deformity,  -  289 
Effects  of  pressure  on  the  mus- 
cles of  the  back,  -  -  290 
Application  of  these  principles,  292 
Effects  of  tight  lacing  on  the 

Lungs,          -        -        -  296 
Pulmonary  Consumption  in 
consequence  of  pressure  on 

the  Lungs,        -        -        -  299 

Dr.  Morton's  case,       "-."*  '"-  301 

Mortality  by  Consumption,  304 
Prevention  of  spinal  distortion,  305 
Effects  of  stays  on  the  vigor 

of  the  species,        -        -  310 


Books  consulted  with  reference  to  this  work. 

Arnotts*  Elements  of  Physics. 

Bostock's  Physiology.  3  vols.  London. 

Blumenback's  Physiology. 

Magendie's  Physiology.  Edinburgh. 

Dunglissons'  Physiology. 

Library  of  Useful  Knowledge. 

Cuvier's  Animal  Kingdom.  4  vols. 

Combe  on  Health,  and  Mental  Education. 

Ticknoronthe  Philosophy  of  Living. 

Bingley's  Animal  Kingdom.  4  vols.  London. 

Parkinson's  Organic  Remains.   London. 

Roget's  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology,    2  vols.  London. 

Fyfes'  Anatomy.    4  vols.   London. 

Bells'  Anatomy.  2  vols. 

Hooper's  Medical  Dictionary. 

Spallanzani's  Dessertations  on  Natural  History.   2  vols.  London. 

Brown's  Book  of  Butterflies.    2  vols.  London. 

Combe  on  the  Physical  Constitution  of  Man. 

Dick's  Christian  Philosopher. 

Dick's  Mental  Illumination. 

Alcott's  House  I  live  in. 

Bell  on  the  Hand. 

Letters  on  Entomology.   London. 

Lizar's  Plates  of  the  Human  System.    Folio.    London. 

Beaumont  on  Digestion. 

Kirby's  History  of  the  Habits  of  Incects. 

Shaw  on  Dislocations  of  the  Spine.  London. 

Jardine's  Library  of  Natural  History.  Edinburgh. 

Natural  History  of  Insects.  (Harpers' Family  Library.)  2  vols. 

Rennie's  History  of  Insects.  3  vols. 

Hay  ward's  Outlines  of  Human  Physiology. 

Morton's  Illustrations  of  Consumptive  Diseases. 

Kitchiner's  Invalids'  Oracle.    (Family  Library.) 

Habits  of  Birds.  (Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge.)  London. 

Willich's  Lectures  on  Diet,  and  Regimen. 

Brewster's  Letters  on  Natural  Magic. 

Bichat,  On  Life,  and  Death. 

Rennie's  Alphabet  of  Insects.    London. 

Barry  on  Digestion.    London. 

Ure's  Chemical  Dictionary. 


ANIMAL   PHYSIOLOGY. 


THE  term  PHYSIOLOGY  signifies  "  a  discourse  on  Na- 
ture," and  hence  is  applicable  to  an  explanation  of  the 
laws  which  govern  the  growth  of  vegetables,  and  the 
crystalization  of  minerals,  as  well  as  to  a  discourse  on 
the  functions  of  animal  life. 

Animal  Physiology  is  divided  into  two  distinct  de- 
partments, viz.,  Comparative  and  Human.  Comparative 
Physiology  is  a  discourse  or  treatise,  on  the  corporeal 
functions  of  the  inferior  animals.  Human  Physiology 
explains  the  corresponding  functions  of  Man. 

In  pursuing  the  subject  of  Animal  Physiology,  the 
student  will  constantly  be  reminded  that  nothing  has 
been  left  undone,  even  to  the  minutest  detail,  which 
could  in  any  way  advance  the  welfare  and  comfort  of 
living  existences  taken  as  a  whole.  On  the  contrary, 
he  will  find  that  each  animal  is  placed  in  a  situation 
most  congenial  to  its  own  organization  and  capacities, 
and  that  it  is  provided  with  instruments  and  endowed 
with  senses  and  capabilities  exactly  befitting  the  condi- 
tion in  which  it  is  placed.  The  earth  worm,  for  in- 
stance, has  no  use  for  eyes,  since  it  never  voluntarily 
comes  to  the  light ;  nor  for  hands  or  wings,  since  these 
would  be  worse  than  useless  in  the  place  and  manner 
of  its  existence.  Nor  has  the  fish  any  use  for  lungs  or 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  Physiology?     How  is  Animal 
Physiology  divided  1    What  is  said  of  the  adaptation  of  the  organs  and 
capacities  of  animals  to  their  wants  ? 
2 


14  ANIMAL    PHYSIOLOGY. 

feet,  since  its  organization  prevents  it  from  breathing 
the  air  or  walking  on  the  earth.  On  the  contrary  sight, 
instruments  for  rising  in  the  air,  and  for  walking  on  the 
earth,  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  higher  orders  of 
animals,  otherwise  they  would  be  unable  to  accomplish 
the  ends  for  which  they  were  created. 

The  student  will  also  be  able  to  notice,  that  the  Cre- 
ator has  employed  the  strictest  economy  with  respect 
to  animal  organization,  every  individual  being  in  posses- 
sion of  all  the  instruments  and  means  with  which  to  ac- 
complish the  ends  of  its  creation,  but  no  more.  No  su- 
perfluous organs  are  bestowed  on  any,  even  of  the  fa- 
vorites of  nature,  but  always  a  sufficiency  for  every 
destined  purpose,  both  with  respect  to  number  and 
power. 

In  the  details  of  the  habits  and  physiological  functions 
of  some  of  the  lower  orders  of  insects,  the  pupil  will  prob- 
ably often  find  himself  greatly  excited  by  curiosity,  but 
it  is  hoped  that  he  will  not  therefore  neglect  or  forget 
the  chief  design  of  this  work,  which  is  to  bring  him  to 
the  acknowledgement  and  adoration  of  a  Great  First 
Cause,  by  making  him  acquainted  with  the  mechanism 
and  functions  of  His  animated  creation. 

What  is  said  with  respect  to  the  economy  employed  in  animal  organ- 
ization ? 


PART     I. 

MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

THE  lowest  orders  of  the  animal  creation  possess 
neither  bones,  nerves,  sight,  or  hearing.  Some  of  them 
are  fixed,  while  others  have  the  power  of  locomotion, 
though  they  possess  neither  eyes  nor  ears  to  direct  them 
in  their  movements. 

Some  of  the  medusa  tribes  can  hardly  claim  the  rank 
of  organized  beings,  appearing  when  alive  like  a  trans- 
parent jelly,  and  when  dead  leaving  nothing  but  a  lim- 
pid watery  fluid  into  which  they  dissolve  by  decompo- 
sition. 

The  sponges  have  no  higher  place  as  animal  existen- 
ces, being  fixed  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  having  no 
sensation  and  no  motion,  except  that  by  which  they  ob- 
tain their  food. 

Many  other  orders,  as  the'Hydra,  Vorticella,  and  Infu- 
soria, are  but  little  removed  from  these  in  organization 
or  capacity.  Some  of  these  tribes  are  so  little  above 
vegetables  in  their  organization,  that  they  may  be  pre- 
served like  the  seeds  of  plants.  The  Rotifer,  or  wheel 
animal,  which  lives  and  moves  in  water,  may  be  taken 
out  and  dried,  when  it  appears  like  a  grain  of  dust,  and 
may  so  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time.  But  if  placed 
in  a  drop  of  water  it  soon  shows  its  vitality  by  its  brisk 
voluntary  motion,  and  this  alternate  life  and  death  the 
little  animal  passes  through  any  number  of  times  without 

What  is  said  of  the  senses  of  the  lowest  orders  of  animals'?  What  is 
said  of  the  medusa  T:  What  is  said  of  the  sponges  1  What  is  said  of  the 
rotifer,  or  wheel  animal7? 


16  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

injury.  In  like  manner  the  Gordius,  a  worm  resembling 
a  horse-hair,  which  inhabits  stagnant  pools,  may  be 
dried,  when  it  has  no  more  signs  of  life  than  a  piece  of 
wire,  and  again  revived  to  life  by  immersion  in  water. 
This  animal  is  supposed  by  many  to  have  derived  its 
existence  from  a  horse-hair  accidentally  falling  into  the 
water.  But  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  such  mis- 
takes call  for  a  more  general  knowledge  of  Animal 
Physiology. 

We  shall  begin  our  physiological  descriptions  with 
the  most  simple  organizations,  and  gradually  passing 
through  those  which  are  more  and  more  complex,  finally 
come  to  that  of  our  own  species. 


SPONGE. 

The  remains  of  this  animal  are  in  such  universal  use, 
and  consequently  so  well  known  as  to  require  no  gene- 
ral description.  It  belongs  to  an  order  of  animals  called 
Zoophytes,  which  also  includes  the  Corals,  the  Polypi, 
and  several  other  races  which  are  only  a  single  grade 
above  vegetables.  This  order  indeed  appears  to  be  the 
connecting  link,  between  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms.  The  term  Zoophytes  signifies  "  animated 
plants." 

The  Sponges,  of  which  there  are  manv  species,  are 
all  marine  animals,  living  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  where 
they  are  firmly  attached  to  rocks  and  stones. 

These  productions  in  general  appearance  much  more 
nearly  resemble  plants  than  animals ;  but  in  their  inter- 
nal organization  and  structure  they  differ  entirely  from 
vegetables.  Their  animal  nature  is  clearly  shown  by 
chemical  analysis,  and  by  the  voluntary  motion  of  some 
of  their  parts  which  resembles  respiration. 

Every  part  of  the  surface  of  a  living  Sponge  presents 
to  the  eye  two  kinds  of  orifices ;  the  larger  having  a 
rounded  shape,  and  generally  a  little  raised  on  the  mar- 

What  is  said  of  the  gordius'?  To  what  order  of  animals  does  the 
sponge  belong  1  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  zoophytes  1  How  is 
the  animal  nature  of  the  sponge  indicated  7  What  is  said  concerning 
the  orifices  of  the  living  sponge  1 


SPONGE.  17 


gins ;  the  smaller  are  much  more  minute,  running  in  all 
directions,  and  constituting  what  are  termed  the  pores  of 
the  Sponge. 

Fig.  1. 


The  structure  of  the  living  Sponge  is  shown  by  fig, 
1,  where  it  will  be  observed  that  the  larger  orifices  are 
much  more  conspicuous  than  in  the  dead  one,  these  ele- 
vated parts  being  usually  almost  obliterated  by  the 
death  of  the  animal,  and  by  pressure  in  packing  it  for 
market. 

From  these  orifices,  Dr.  Grant  has  discovered,  that  in 
the  living  Sponge  there  is  a  constant  stream  of  the  fluid 
in  which  the  animal  is  immersed.  A  small  piece  of  liv- 
ing sponge  being  placed  in  a  watch  crystal  filled  with 
sea  water  and  the  whole  placed  under  a  microscope, 
Dr.  Grant  perceived  some  motion  among  the  opaque 
particles  of  the  fluid.  "  On  moving  the  watch  glass," 
says  he,  "  so  as  to  bring  one  of  the  orifices  on  the  side  of 
the  sponge  fully  into  view,  I  beheld,  for  the  first  time, 
the  splendid  spectacle  of  this  living  fountain,  vomiting 
forth,  from  a  circular  cavity,  an  impetuous  torrent  of 
liquid  matter,  and  hurling  along,  in  rapid  succession, 
opaque  masses,  which  were  strewed  every  where  around. 
The  beauty  and  novelty  of  such  a  scene  in  the  animal 
kingdom  long  arrested  my  attention,  but  after  twenty- 
five  minutes  of  constant  observation,  I  was  obliged  to 
withdraw  my  eye  from  fatigue,  without  having  seen  the 
torrent  for  one  instant  change  its  direction,  or  diminish, 
in  the  slightest  degree,  the  rapidity  of  its  course.  I  con- 

What  was  the  experiment  by  which  Dr.  G? ant  proved  that  sponge  i* 
an  animal  I 

2* 


18  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS, 

tinued  to  watch  the  same  orifice,  at  short  intervals,  for 
five  hours,  sometimes  observing  it  for  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  at  a  time,  but  still  the  stream  rolled  on  with  a  con- 
stant and  equal  velocity." 

The  water  thus  poured  forth  in  a  perpetual  stream 
from  these  apertures  is  received  through  the  millions  of 
pores  which  pervade  the  sponge  in  every  direction,  and 
by  this  means  it  is  that  the  animal  is  nourished.  Even 
fish  of  several  pounds  weight  will  live  for  weeks,  or  per- 
haps months,  upon  no  other  nourishment  than  what  is 
contained  in  sea  water,  so  that  the  sustenance  of  the 
Sponge  by  such  means  presents  nothing  uncommon. 

The  mechanism  by  which  these  currents  of  water  are 
constantly  produced,  is  involved  in  obscurity.  It  is 
however  supposed  to  consist  of  cilia,  or  small  hairs  lining 
the  inner  surfaces  of  the  tubes,  the  motions  of  which 
propel  the  water  through  them. 

These  currents  are  readily  made  apparent  by  placing 
the  living  animal  in  a  shallow  vessel  of  sea  water,  and 
strewing  a  little  powdered  chalk  on  the  surface,  the 
motions  of  which  make  that  of  the  water  plainly  visible, 
as  shown  in  the  figure. 

Manner  in  which  the  young  Sponges  are  disseminated. 
In  all  parts  of  creation,  whether  of  the  vegetable  or  ani- 
mal kingdoms,  there  is  provided  effectual  means  for  the 
dissemination  of  the  species.  (For  an  account  of  the 
dissemination  of  the  seeds  of  plants,  see  the  author's  In- 
troduction to  Botany.)  For  the  distribution  of  the  Spon- 
ges the  method  provided  is  singularly  curious  and  interest- 
ing, and  at  the  same  time  displays  in  a  most  striking 
manner  the  care  which  the  Creator  has  taken  to  per- 
petuate his  most  humble  works. 

On  examining  certain  parts  of  the  Sponge,  which 
when  living  and  wet,  is  nearly  transparent,  there  is 
found  a  multitude  of  yellow  opaque  spots,  visible  to  the 
naked  eye.  These,  when  examined  with  a  microscope 

Whence  comes  the  water  which  is  poured  forth  from  these  apertures  ? 
How  does  the  sponge  obtain  its  nourishment  7  By  what  means  is  it 
supposed  the  currents  through  the  apertures  are  produced  1  How  are 
the  currents  made  apparent  1  In  what  manner  are  the  young  sponges 
distributed  1 


FOLYPIFERA.  19 

are  ascertained  to  be  the  eggs,  or  gemmules  of  the  fu- 
ture animal.  In  a  few  months  they  enlarge  in  size,  and 
Fig.  2.  assume  an  oval  or  pear-shaped  form,  and 
are  covered  with  cilia,  or  hairs,  as  shown 
by  fig.  2.  They  then  become  detached 
from  the  parent  one  after  another,  and 
float  or  swim  along  with  the  current,  always 
carrying  their  broad  and  rounded  extrem- 
ity forward.  While  thus  suspended  in  the 
water,  the  cilia,  with  which  they  are  cover- 
ed, are  in  rapid  and  perpetual  motion,  giving  them  a 
slow  impulse  forward.  In  these  movements  if  they 
strike  against  each  other,  or  meet  with  any  other  im- 
pediment, they  avoid  the  difficulty  as  other  animals  do, 
by  turning  aside  and  then  proceeding  in  their  former 
course.  In  some  instances  when  two  of  these  little 
animals  happen  to  meet,  they  adhere  to  each  other,  and 
in  a  few  days  no  line  of  distinction  can  be  observed  be- 
tween them,  the  two  being  united  into  one  individual, 
and  so  continue  to  grow  during  the  rest  of  their  lives. 
This  union  appears  to  be  analagous  to  that  of  engrafting 
in  plants,  only  with  respect  to  the  young  Sponges  it  is 
voluntary. 

After  leaving  the  parent,  these  little  animals  float 
about  for  a  day  or  two,  when  finding  a  suitable  place, 
they  fix  themselves  firmly  to  a  stone  or  rock,  and  there 
gradually  increase  to  the  adult  size,  and  in  their  turn 
send  forth  their  progeny  as  above  described. 

These  facts  of  course  could  only  have  been  ascer- 
tained by  placing  the  parent  sponge  in  a  vessel  of  sea 
water.  Many  of  these  observations  were  made  in  vessels 
no  larger  than  watch  crystals. 

POLYPIFERA. 

The  term  Polypifera  is  the  name  of  the  order,  and 
means  animals  bearing  polypi.  The  name  polypus  de- 

In  what  manner  do  they  move  through  the  water?  What  is  said  of 
the  union  of  two  of  these  animals  into  one?  What  does  this  union  ap- 
pear to  be  analagous  to  ?  What  becomes  of  the  young  sponges  after  be- 
ing detached  from  their  parents  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term 
Polypifera  ? 


20  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

notes   a  mass  of  these  animals,  and  polype  a  single 
animal. 

This  order  embraces  many  species  of  very  simple 
animals,  chiefly  inhabiting  salt  water.  Some  of  them 
are  exceedingly  minute,  while  others  are  several  inches 
in  length. 

Each  of  these  curious  animals  is  formed  of  a  tube, 
attached  by  its  lower  end  to  some  solid  substance,  the 
upper  end  being  surrounded  by  a  number  of  flexible 
fibres  or  arms,  called  tentacula.  These  tentacula  radi- 
ate from  a  common  centre,  in  the  midst  of  which  is  the 
mouth  of  the  animal.  A  single  polype  is  represented 
Fig.  3.  by  fig.  3.  The  tentacula  are  eight  in  number, 
but  in  some  species  are  much  more  numerous. 
The  arrangement  of  these,  on  the  margin  of 
the  mouths  of  the  animals,  bears  a  considera- 
ble resemblance  to  a  flower  with  radiating 
petals,  as  the  daisy  and  aster. 

Polypi  for  the  most  part  reside  in  cells,  or 
tubes,  composed  of  horny  or  calcarious  matter,  in  the 
form  of  sheaths,  which  enclose  the  body  of  the  animal, 
leaving  the  tentacula  and  mouths  free  for  action  above 
their  margins.  Sometimes  these  tubes  are  joined  to- 
Fi°-.  4.  gether  endwise,  like  the  branches  of  a 

tree,  leaving  lateral  apertures  for  the 
protrusion  of  the  tentacula  of  each 
animal,  as  shown  by  fig.  4.  In  this 
figure  each  bundle  of  radiating  fibrils 
along  the  branches  represents  the  ten- 
tacula of  a  polype. 

The  well  known  marine  substance 
called  coral  is  the  product  of  the  la- 
bors of  certain  species  of  these  indus- 
trious animals.  A  great  number  of 
species  are  perpetually  employed  in 
the  construction  of  different  varieties  of  this  substance. 
Coral  is  composed  of  calcarious  particles,  with  a  portion 
of  animal,  and  occasionally  coloring  matter  elaborated 
into  a  solid,  or  porous  form,  by  these  animals. 

What  does  polype  mean  1  Polypus  ?  Polypi  7  Describe  a  polype  I 
What  are  tentacula  7  What  common  flowers  do  these  animals  resem- 
ble ?  What  does  fig.  4  represent  1 


POLYPIPERA. 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  5.  A  branch  of  red  coral  is  represented 

by  fig.  5,  with  the  little  animals  at  work 
on  it. 

Fig.  6  is  a  part  of  one  of  these 
branches  magnified,  and  showing  the 
tentacula  expanded  as  when  the  animal 
is  under  water ;  and  also  in  the  con- 
tracted state,  as  when  the  branch  is 
removed  from  the  fluid. 

These  structures  are  fixed  perma- 
nently to  stones  or  rocks  at  the  bottom 
of  the  ocean,  which  in  warm  climates 
are  often  covered  with  them  to  a  great 
extent. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  these 
fixed  zoophytes  are  multiplied  like  the 
sponge,  by  gemmules,  in  the  manner 
similar  to  that  already  described. 

The  mechanism  by  which  some  species  of  polypi  pro- 
duce a  constant  current  of  water  towards  their  mouths 
is  so  curious  that  we  should  not  do  justice  to  this  subject 
without  describing  it. 

When  the  tentacula  are  expanded,  small  particles  in 
the  water  may  be  observed  constantly  tending  towards 
the  mouths  of  these  animals.  This  motion  of  the  water 
is  not  produced  by  the  motion  of  the  tentacula  them- 
selves, but  is- the  effect  of  the  rapid  vibration  of  minute 
cilia  placed  along  their  sides. 

In  the  species  called  Flustra  Carbacea,  the  tentacula 
in  each  polype  are  twenty-two  in  number,  and  along  the 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8.  lateral  margins  of  each,  there 
is  a  single  row  of  cilia  extend- 
ing from  the  base  to  the  ter- 
mination. This  animal  is  re- 
presented in  the  posture  of 
forming  the  current  by  fig.  7. 
Fig.  8  is  a  portion  of  a  tenta- 
cula highly  magnified,  to  show 
the  cilia,  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  current  is  produc- 
ed. From  the  positions  in 
which  the  cilia  stand,  it  will  be  observed  that  their  mo- 


22 


MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 


tions  are  ascending  on  the  one  side,  and  descending  on 
the  other.  By  these  contrary  motions  the  water  would 
be  carried  around  the  tentacula  in  a  longitudinal  direc- 
tion, provided  it  was  detached.  But  many  of  them  be- 
ing placed  around  the  mouth  of  the  polype,  with  the 
motions  of  the  cilia  on  the  outside  ascending,  and  those 
on  the  inside  descending,  it  is  obvious  that  the  effect  is 
to  produce  a  perpetual  current  of  the  fluid  to  the  mouth 
of  the  animal,  and  as  the  polype  subsists  on  minute  in- 
sects, and  particles  of  decomposing  matter  which  it 
takes  from  the  water,  this  wonderful  mechanism  is  evi- 
dently designed  to  bring  food  to  its  mouth. 

The  vibrations  of  these  cilia,  when  the  animal  is  vig- 
orous, are  too  rapid  to  be  distinguished  by  the  eye,  even 
when  assisted  by  a  microscope ;  and  it  is  only  when  it 
becomes  languid,  and  the  motions  diminished,  that  they 
can  be  seen.  But  the  effect  can  be  discovered  by  the 
naked  eye,  by  the  motions  of  floating  particles  in  the 
water. 


HYDRA. 


To  the  Zoophytic  order  belong  another  tribe  of  ani- 
mals called  Hydra,  which  on  some  accounts  are  the  most 
singular  and  curious  productions  of  nature.  This  ani- 
mal consists  of  a  stomach  with  tentacula  for  catching  its 
food,  and  nothing  more.  It  exhibits  not  a  trace  of 
either  brain,  nerves,  or  organs  of  sense  of  any  kind  ;  nor 
is  there  any  parts  corresponding  to  lungs,  heart,  arte- 
ries, or  veins,  or  any  other  vessels  whatever,  all  those 
organs  so  essential  to  the  existence  of  other  animals  be- 
ing entirely  wanting. 

Mr.  Trembley,  of  Geneva,  who  watched  the  actions 
of  these  animals  with  unwearied  patience  for  days  to- 
gether, has  given  the  following  curious  account  of  what 
he  discovered. 


What  ornamental  substance  is  made  by  polypi  1  What  is  composi- 
tion of  coral  7  In  what  manner  are  polypi  multiplied  1  Explain  fig.  7 
and  8.  In  what  manner  do  polypi  produce  a  constant  current  of  water 
towards  their  mouths  1  What  purpose  does  this  current  answer  to  the 
animal?  What  parts  pertaining  to  other  animals  are  wanting  in  the 
hydra? 


HYDRA.'  23 

The  Hydra  are  fresh  water  animals  of  very  diminu- 
tive size,  and  are  generally  fixed  to  some  solid  body,  as 
a  stick  or  leaf,  by  the  tail,  though  they  have  the  power 
of  detaching  themselves  and  of  moving  slowly  through 
the  water.  They  are  carnivorous  animals,  and  though 
they  do  not  chase  their  prey,  they  devour  all  kinds  of 
living  creatures  coming  within  reach  of  their  tentacula, 
which  they  can  manage.  Worms  longer  than  them- 
selves they  devour,  by  first  doubling  them  together  by 
means  of  their  long  arms. 

A  Hydra  in  the  act  of  gorging  a 
worm  of  twice  its  own  size  is  seen  at 
fig.  9.  The  poor  worm  is  completely 
entangled  within  the  folds  of  the  ten- 
tacula, while  the  voracious  animal,  with 
expanded  mouth  is  absorbing  its  juices,  so  as  to  bring  it 
within  the  capacity  of  himself. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  when  two  of  these  animals 
have  siezed  the  same  worm  by  different  ends,  a  violent 
struggle  ensues  between  them,  and  the  stronger,  having 
gained  the  victory,- not  only  swallows  the  object  of  con- 
Fig.  10.     tention,  but   his  antagonist    along    with    it. 
Fig.  10  represents  such  a  case,  the  tail  of 
the  swallowed  animal  protruding  from  the 
mouth  of  the  victor.     But  the  former  soon 
extricates  himself  from  this  dilemma,  without 
having  suffered  the  least  injury,  and  indeed  is 
often  the  gainer,  by  retaining  a  portion  of  the 
object  of  contention  to  himself. 
But  the  most  singular,  and  indeed,  astonishing  facts 
which  Mr.  Trembley  ascertained  with  respect  to  these 
animals,  are,  that  they  have  the  power  of  repairing  all 
sorts  of  injuries  and  mutilations  inflicted  on  them,  and  of 
still  digesting  their  food,  and  of  recovering  a  good  de- 
gree of  health  after  being  turned  wrong  side  out. 

If  their  tentacula  be  clipped  off  they  soon  grow  again. 
If  the  animal  be  cut  in  two,  across  the  middle,  there 
will  sprout  forth  a  new  head  from  one  part,  and  a  new 
tail  from  the  other,  together  with  such  portions  of  the 
body  in  each  case  as  were  wanted  to  make  a  good  and 

What  is  said  of  the  power  of  the  hydra  to  reproduce  mutilations  1 


2  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

complete  animal.     If  the  head  of  the  Hydra  and  a  por- 
tion of  the  body  be  divided  by  a  longitudinal  section, 
the  animal  is  thereby  the  gainer,  for  the  divided  parts 
form  two  heads  instead  of  one,  with  complete  sets  of 
tentacula  for  each  mouth,  and  thus  he  can  enjoy  the  sat- 
isfaction of  eating  with  two  mouths  at  the  same  time. 
If  the  head  be  split  into  half  a  dozen  parts,  each  part  will 
form  a  new  head  with  mouth  and  tentacula  to  match, 
Fig.  11.         the  whole  being  united  to  one  body. 
Fig.    11    represents    a    seven    headed 
monster,  the  result  of  several  mutila- 
tions and  divisions  of  one  of  these  pro- 
tean creatures. 

Sometimes  of  its  own  accord  a  Hy- 
dra will  split  in  two  parts  lengthwise, 
each  division  becoming  independent  of  the  other,  and 
growing  to  the  same  size,  and  attaining  the  same  organs 
as  the  original  animal. 

Mr.  Trembley  also  found  that  any  portion  of  one 
Hydra  might  be  engrafted  on  another,  in  the  same  man- 
ner that  pieces  of  India  rubber  may  be  joined,  that  is, 
by  cutting  their  surfaces  and  pressing  them  together. 
By  this  means  they  would  unite  and  become  a  compound 
animal.  Thus  many  heads  may  be  united  to  one  body, 
or  many  bodies  to  one  head ;  and  so  on  the  contrary 
when  one  Hydra  is  introduced  into  the  mouth  of  another 
so  that  their  heads  are  kept  in  contact,  for  a  time,  they 
unite  and  become  one  individual  animal. 

Even  the  figures  of  other  animals,  as  quadrupeds,  or 
man,  might  be  constructed  in  this  manner,  though  every 
where  covered  with  moving  tentacula. 

PENNATUL.E. 

Another  form  under  which  polypi  exist,  is  that  called 
Pennatula.  This  is  called  sea  pen,  from  its  re- 


How  may  parts  of  these  animals  be  engrafted  upon  each  other? 
some  account  of  the  pennatulae. 


PENNATULJ3. 


25 


Fig.  12.  Fig.  13.          semblance  to  a  quill.     It 

consists  of  a  calcareous 
stem,  the  upper  end  of 
which  has  a  series  of 
branches  on  each  side, 
resembling  the  filaments 
of  a  feather,  and  in  the 
end  of  each  of  which  re- 
sides an  animal,  the 
whole  being  represented 
by  fig.  12.  Some  of  the 
polypi  are  seen  magnified 
in  fig.  13. 

These  animals  are  not 
fixed  like  those  we  have  described,  but  float  along  with 
the  currents  of  the  ocean,  having  little  or  perhaps  no 
power  of  locomotion,  though  the  movements  of  their 
tentacula  are  sufficient  to  prevent  their  sinking,  and  to 
enable  them  to  rise  slowly  in  the  water. 

The  Pennatulaa  must  be  considered  as  a  mass  of  dis- 
tinct animals  aggregated  together  to  form,  in  many  re- 
spects, one  individual.  In  Botany  the  class  Syngenesia 
presents  many  distinct  flowers  assembled  together  to 
form  a  single  compound  individual,  as  the  Thistle  and 
Dandelion,  each  individual  being  on  the  same  receptacle, 
and  supported  by  the  same  stem.  So  far,  therefore,  as 
aggregation  is  concerned,  there  is  a  strict  analogy  be- 
tween a  compound  flower  and  the  Pennatulae.  But 
while  each  individual  of  the  Syngenesian  flowers  re- 
ceives its  nourishment  through  the  same  stem,  the  cor- 
responding part  of  the  compound  animal,  which  is  a 
common  stomach,  receives  its  nourishment  through  hun- 
dreds of  mouths,  so  that  here  the  analogy  fails. 

In  the  Pennatulae  each  mouth  leads  into  a  separate 
stomach,  whence  the  food,  after  digestion,  passes  into 
several  channels,  which  proceed  in  different  directions 
from  the  cavity  of  each  stomach,  dividing  into  many 
branches,  and  being  distributed  over  all  the  surrounding 
portions  of  flesh.  These  branches  communicate  with 
similar  channels  proceeding  from  the  neighboring  stom- 

What  is  said  of  the  stomach  of  the  pinnatulae'? 

3 


26  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

achs  ;  so  that  the  food  which  has  been  taken  in  by  one 
of  the  mouths,  contributes  to  the  general  nourishment  of 
Fig.  14.  the    whole    mass    of 

aggregated  polypi. 
These  curious  facts 
were  discovered  by 
Cuvier,  and  are  re- 
presented by  fig.  14, 
where  the  stomachs 
of  the  three  polypi, 
with  their  tentacula  spread  out,  are  seen  communicating 
at  their  lower  extremities  with  a  canal,  which  thus  be- 
comes a  common  stomach  to  the  whole  colony. 

INFUSORIA. 

The  Infusory  insects,  or  Infusoria,  were  so  named 
from  the  circumstance  that  they  always  appear  during 
the  warm  seasons,  in  water  in  which  vegetable  or  animal 
substances  have  been  infused.  Hence  they  exist  in 
stagnant  ditches  and  pools  of  water,  every  where  du- 
ring the  summer  and  autumn.  These  animals  are 
generally  too  minute  to  be  distinguished  by  the  naked 
eye,  and  therefore  it  is  to  microscopic  observations  that 
we  owe  our  knowledge  of  their  existence  and  habits. 

Former  writers  on  natural  history  have  called  these 
animalcula,  monads,  and  have  regarded  them  as  occu- 
pying the  very  lowest  rank  of  animal  creation.  Some 
have  even  expressed  doubts  whether  they  really  belong 
to  the  animal  kingdom  ;  but  would  rather  consider  them 
as  molecules,  or  the  elementary  particles  of  organic  be- 
ings, separated  from  each  other  by  chemical  decompo- 
sition, but  retaining  the  power  of  voluntary  motion. 

The  Infusoria,  during  the  last  century,  have  been  the 
object  of  veiy  laborious  microscopical  research ;  no  nat- 
uralist considering  himself  accomplished  until  he  had 
spent  a  considerable  portion  of  time  in  observing  the 
motions  and  studying  the  characters  of  these  animated 
particles.  Many  theories,  conjectures,  and  disputes 

Whence  do  the  infusoria  derive  their  name  7    What  was  the  former 
.name  for  infusoria  7 


INFUSORIA.  27 

arose  in  consequence  of  such  observations ;  some  con- 
tending that  Monads  were  merely  living  globules  with- 
out animal  organization,  but  capable  of  uniting  into  ani- 
mated masses,  and  thus  of  forming  the  flesh  and  blood 
of  organized  creatures.  According  to  this  doctrine,  all 
other  animals,  including  us,  human  beings,  are  nothing 
more  than  great  congregations  of  Monads.  That  great 
naturalist,  Buffon,  was  the  author  of  this  hypothesis,  and 
therefore  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  it  had  many 
profound  advocates.  It  would  neither  interest  nor  in- 
struct the  student  in  physiology  to  give  a  detail  of  other 
opinions  concerning  these  living  motes,  since  the  more 
perfect  microscopes  of  later  philosophers  have  shown 
that  these  animals  are  regularly  and  carefully  organized, 
having  not  only  a  stomach,  but  such  other  organs  as  fit 
them  for  their  station  in  life. 

Wheel  Animal. — The  Rotifera,  or  wheel  animalcula, 
Fig.  15.  is  one  of  the  Infusoria  race,  though 
larger  than  the  monad.  Fig.  15.  re- 
presents an  animal  of  this  order,  mag- 
nified 380  times  its  natural  size.  Its 
name  is  derived  from  the  apparatus 
which  it  possesses  for  creating  a  cir- 
cular current  in  the  water.  The  or- 
gans by  which  this  effect  is  produced 
are  two  in  number,  and  are  seen  at 
the  top  of  the  figure.  They  are  situa- 
ted on  the  head,  but  do  not  surround 
the  mouth,  like  the  tentacula  of  the 
polypi.  They  consist  of  circular  disks, 
the  margins  of  which  are  fringed  with 
rows  of  cilia,  bearing  a  resemblance  to  a  crown  wheel 
in  machinery.  These  wheels  appear  to  be  incessantly 
revolving,  and  generally  in  one  direction,  giving  to  the 
fluid  a  rotary  impulse,  which  carries  it  around  in  a  con- 
tinual vortex.  The  constancy  of  this  motion  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  it  is  as  necessary  to  the  life  of  the 
animal  as  respiration  is  to  the  higher  orders ;  the  revolu- 

What  was  the  opinion  of  Buffon  with  respect  to  monads  7  What  pe- 
culiarity do  the  rotifera  exhibit  1  Is  the  revolution  of  the  wheel  of  the 
rotifera  real,  or  only  apparent  1 


28  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

tions  never  ceasing  so  long  as  the  animal  is  alive.  This 
motion,  when  considered  merely  with  respect  to  the 
mechanism  by  which  it  is  produced,  cannot  but  excite 
intense  curiosity ;  for  we  have  no  analogy  in  the  organi- 
zation of  any  other  animal  with  which  to  compare  it, 
nor  from  all  we  know  on  the  subject  should  we  believe 
it  possible  that  a  circular  motion  of  a  part  of  an  animal 
could  be  continued  for  any  length  of  time  in  the  same 
direction.  What  animal  or  other  substance  will  with- 
stand perpetual  twisting  in  one  direction  ?  and  yet  if 
there  is  no  deception  with  respect  to  the  revolutions  of 
these  wheels,  one  would  be  led  to  suppose  such  a  sub- 
stance. The  appearance  is  undoubtedly  that  of  a  con- 
stant revolution  of  the  wheel  itself,  but  recent  observers, 
however,  believe  it  to  be  only  apparent,  and  the  decep- 
tion to  be  caused  by  a  peculiar  and  exceedingly  rapid 
motion  of  the  cilia  on  the  margin  of  the  wheels. 

Physalia,  or  Portuguese  Man-of-War. — This  animal 
greatly  excels  in  size  those  we  have  heretofore  descri- 
bed, but  scarcely  ranks  above  them  in  organization ;  its 
powers  of  motion  being  merely  such  as  to  enable  it  to 
rise  and  sink  in  the  water. 

It  consists  of  a  large  air  bladder,  of  perhaps  a  quart  in 
capacity,  which  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  and 
which  serves  it  as  a  sail.  Below  this  there  is  a  bundle 
of  tentacula,  with  a  mouth  and  stomach,  the  whole  appear- 
ing more  like  an  inorganic  mass  than  a  living  creature, 
Fig.  16.  fig.  16.  These  animals  are  very 

abundant  in  most  parts  of  the  At- 
lantic ocean,  where  they  appear 
at  a  little  distance  like  so  many 
large  soap  bubbles  floating  along 
before  the  wind,  only  that  they  pre- 
I  sent  the  most  vivid  hues  of  color. 
'Nothing,  it  is  said,  can  exceed 
the  beauty  of  the  spectacle  pre- 
sented by  a  numerous  fleet  of  these 
animals  quietly  sailing  on  the 
smooth  surface  of  a  tropical  sea. 
Whenever  the  surface  is  ruffled  by 
the  slightest  wind,  they  suddenly 


INFUSORIA. 


absorb  the  air  from  their  viscicles,  and  thus,  becoming 
specifically  heavier  than  the  water,  immediately  disap- 
pear by  sinking  into  the  depths  of  the  ocean.  By  what 
process  they  effect  the  absorption  and  reproduction  of 
the  air  in  their  bubbles,  yet  remains  to  be  discovered." 

Echinus. — The  shell,  or  skeleton  of  this  animal  is  well 
Fig.  17.  known  under  the  name  of  sea 

urchin,  or  sea  egg,  and  is  re- 
presented by  fig.  17.  Its  form 
is  spheroidal,  resembling  that  of 
an  orange.  On  the  outside  there 
are  a  great  number  of  tubercles 
arranged  in  double  lines  in 
beautiful  symmetry,  from  the 
mouth  downwards,  and  form- 
ing meridian  lines  from  one  pole  of  the  sphere  to  the 
other.  Each  of  these  are  little  balls,  smooth,  and  polish- 
ed on  the  outside,  and  which  serve  for  the  articulation 
of  the  bases  of  the  spine,  with  which,  when  alive,  this 
animal  is  covered.  When  examined  by  a  magnifier,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  end  of  the  spine  has  a  socket  ex- 
actly fitting  this  ball,  thus  forming  the  ball  and  socket 
joint,  which  has  a  universal  motion.  The  head  of  the 
spine  is  furnished  with  a  capsular  ligament  to  keep  it  in 
place,  and  around  which  are  sets  of  radiating  muscular 
fibres,  by  which  motion  in  all  directions  is  given  it. 

The  shell  is  constructed  of  calcareous  matter,  and  is 
composed  of  oblong  six  sided  plates,  accurately  fitting 
each  other,  and  arranged  in  rows  like  a  mosaic  pave- 
ment, as  seen  by  fig.   18.     There  is  a  wonderful  pro- 
Fig.  18.        Fig.  19.  vision  by  which  the  globular  shell 
of  the  Echinus  is  enlarged  accord- 
ing to  the  wants  of  the  internal  ani- 
Imal,  for  some  species  grow  from 
I  the  size  of  a  pins'  head,  to  six  or 
eight  inches  in  diameter.     This  is 
accomplished  by  dividing  the  shell 
into  a  great  number  of  six  sided 

How  are  the  spines  of  the  echinus  fitted  to  its  shell!    What  motion 
have  these  spines  1  In  what  manner  is  the  house  of  the  echinus  enlarged  1 
3* 


30  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS*- 

pieces,  as  seen  by  the  above  figure,  and  of  allowing 
stant  additions  to  be  made  to  the  margins  of  these  pie- 
ces. In  this  manner  it  is  obvious  that  the  whole  struc- 
ture would  be  enlarged  without  changing  the  shape. 
Fig.  19  shows  the  appearance  of  these  plates  when 
magnified. 

By  employing  his  spines  as  feet,  or  levers,  this  animal 
is  capable  of  making  considerable  progress  along  the 
bottom  of  the  sea. 

MOtLUSCA. 

The  Mollusca,  as  the  name  signifies,  are  animals  with 
soft  bodies.  They  have  neither  bones,  nor  hard  parts 
corresponding  to  the  bones  of  the  higher  orders  of  ani- 
mals. This  order  includes  all  those  animals  which  live 
in  calcareous  habitations,  constructed  by  themselves, 
and  so  far  as  they  are  popularly  known,  are  called  shell 
fish,  as  the  Oyster,  Muscle,  and  Clam. 

The  shells  of  the  Mollusca  are  formed  either  of  one 
or  of  several  pieces,  which  are  called  valves.  Those  of 
one  piece  are  called  univalves,  those  consisting  of  two 
pieces  are  termed  bivalves,  and  those  of  more  than  two 
pieces  are  multivalves. 

This  order  presents  a  vast  number,  and  variety  of  in- 
dividuals, many  of  which  have  been  minutely  examined, 
and  arranged  into  species,  genera,  and  orders,  forming 
a  distinct  object  of  study,  entitled  the  science  of  CON- 
CHOLOGY.  It  is  proper,  however,  to  state,  that  this  sci- 
ence is  not  founded  on  the  physiology  of  the  animals 
which  inhabit  these  shells,  but  on  the  forms  and  peculi- 
arities of  the  shells  themselves.  This  arose,  originally, 
from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  for  in  a  great  many  in- 
stances the  shell  is  readily  obtained,  being  cast  upon  the 
sea  shore,  empty,  while  the  animal  which  inhabited  it  is 
never  seen,  because  while  alive  it  lived  only  in  the  un- 
fathomable depths  of  the  ocean.  But  could  the  classi- 
fication have  been  founded  on  the  animal  organization, 
it  is  obvious  that  this  method  would  be  practicable  only 
to  a  few,  since  the  animals  could  not  be  preserved  for 

What  does  the  term  mollusca  signify  1  What  are  molluscous  animals? 


ACEPHALA.  31 

any  length  of  time.  Besides,  it  being  the  object  of  the 
conchologist  to  collect,  arrange,  and  preserve  some  of 
the  greatest  beauties  which  nature  has  presented  to  us, 
in  the  form  of  shells,  this  object  could  be  effected  only  by 
an  arrangement  founded  on  the  shells  themselves. 

Without  going  further  into  the  general  subject  of  this 
order,  we  shall  examine  a  few  individuals  as  types  of 
their  general  organization,  so  far  as  this  is  known. 

ACEPHALA. 

This  term  means  without  head,  and  common  exam- 
ples exist  in  the  Muscle,  Oyster,  and  Scollop.  These  are 
bivalve  shells,  the  two  valves  being  united  at  the  back  by 
a  hinge,  and  connected  by  teeth  which  lock  into  each 
other.  Besides  these,  the  two  shells  are  connected  by 

Fiff.  20. 


means  of  a  strong  ligament  in  form  of  a  short  pillar,  a  b, 
represented  in  fig.  20,  which  are  the  two  valves  of  a  spe- 
cies of  [/mo,  or  fresh  water  Clam.  These  ligaments  are 
very  distinct  in  the  common  species  of  Venus,  called 
Round  Clam,  seen  in  all  the  fish  markets  of  the  Atlantic 
states.  These  ligaments  hold  the  two  valves  together 
with  great  force,  so  that  when  the  animal  is  alive  it  is 
difficult  to  separate  them  without  a  knife. 

There  is  also  in  all  bivalve  shells,  a  cartilage,  gene- 
rally of  a  dark  color,  situated  between  the  two  valves 
at  the  hinge,  the  office  of  which  is  to  force  them  asunder. 


32  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

Now  as  the  nourishment  of  the  animal  requires  that 
the  shell  should  be  kept  open  to  a  small  distance  for  the 
admission  of  the  water,  and  as  its  safety  might  require 
it  to  be  closed  suddenly,  provision  is  made  for  this  action, 
by  a  strong  muscle  passing  from  one  of  the  valves  to 
the  other,  and  by  which  they  are  instantly  brought  to- 
gether at  the  will  of  the  animal. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  Creator  has  furnished  these  ani- 
mals with  every  comfort  and  convenience  which  it 
would  be  possible  for  them  to  enjoy  in  the  situation  in 
which  they  are  placed.  A  pair  of  hard  shells  to  protect 
them — a  cartilage,  answering  as  a  spring  to  keep  these 
shells  a  little  open,  to  admit  the  water  from  which  they 
obtain  food  and  air — a  ligament,  to  prevent  the  shells 
from  opening  too  widely,  in  which  case  the  sand  and 
mud  would  destroy  the  animal — and  a  muscle  by  which 
he  can  in  an  instant  close  his  doors,  and  become  proof 
against  the  attack  of  the  most  voracious  monsters  of  the 
deep.  When  the  animal  dies  the  muscular  force  ceases, 
but  the  cartilage  retains  for  some  time  its  elasticity,  and 
the  ligament  continues  its  adhesion  to  the  valves,  and 
from  these  circumstances  it  is  that  we  find  the  shells  cast 
upon  the  shore,  only  open  to  a  certain  distance,  until 
after  the  destruction  of  the  ligament,  when  the  cartilage 
throws  them  quite  open. 

Several  of  the  bivalve  Mollusca  have  the  power  of 
giving  themselves  a  considerable  motion,  by  suddenly 
closing  their  shells,  and  thus  forcibly  expelling  the  water 
from  between  them.  The  reaction  of  the  fluid  on  the 
temporary  current  thus  produced,  may  often  be  seen  to 
throw  the  shell  many  inches  in  the  opposite  direction. 

The  common  Scollop  contrives  to  give  itself  motion, 
even  on  the  shore,  by  suddenly  and  forcibly  closing  its 
valves ;  one  of  which,  striking  against  some  impediment, 
as  a  pebble,  acts  as  a  spring,  and  thus  throws  it  to  a 
little  distance.  It  is  said  that  when  left  by  the  tide,  they 
often  reach  the  \vater  in  this  way. 


In  bivalve  shells,  when  the  animal  is  alive,  how  are  the  shells  kept  open  ? 
What  prevents  them  from  opening  too  widely  1  How  are  the  shells  sud- 
denly brought  together  1  Why  are  bivalve  shells  generally  found  only 
partly  open  on  the  shored  In  what  manner  do  some  of  these  animals 
give  themselves  a  sudden  motion  in  the  water?  How  is  it  said  the  scol- 
lop contrives  to  more  on  the  shore  ? 


ACEPHALA.  33 

The  Cardium. — Other  bivalves  are  furnished  with  an 
instrument  shaped  somewhat 
like  a  foot  and  leg,  with  which 
they  give  themselves  a  slow, 
but  continued  motion  through 
the  sand.  The  form  of  this  in- 
strument in  the  Cardium  or 
code,  is  shown  by  fig.  21.  This 
>  organ  is  a  hard  mass  of  muscu- 
lar fibres,  woven  together  in  a 
very  complex  manner,  and 
capable  of  motion  in  every 
direction.  By  retracting,  and  then  forcing  this  instru- 
ment forward,  a  contrary  motion  is  given  the  shell,  for 
the  same  reason  that  a  boatman,  in  shallow  water, 
pushes  his  craft  along  with  an  oar  from  the  stern.  With 
his  foot  the  Cardium  also  contrives  to  bury  himself  to 
any  depth  he  chooses  in  the  sand  or  mud.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  leg  is  elongated,  and  by  a  sort  of  vermicular 
motion  is  forced  deep  into  the  sand ;  then  turning  up 
the  toe,  and  forming  it  into  a  kind  of  hook,  the  animal, 
by  an  alternate  retraction  and  elongation  of  the  leg, 
raises  and  depresses  the  shell,  and  by  the  resistance  of 
the  sand  on  the  hook  gradually  draws  the  whole  down- 
wards. By  a  reverse  of  this  motion,  that  is,  by  first 
drawing  up  the  foot,  and  then  pushing  it  downwards 
against  the  sand,  the  shell  is  again  forced  towards  the 
surface.  In  this  manner  does  the  Cardium  bury  itself 
in  the  sand,  in  the  course  of  a  minute  or  two,  to  avoid 
danger,  and  as  quickly  emerges  from  its  hiding  place 
when  the  danger  is  past. 

With  an  instrument  similar  to  that  belonging  to  the 
Cardium,  many  species  of  bivalve  mollusca  move  along 
on  the  sandy  bottoms  of  the  water  in  which  they  live, 
with  greater  or  less  facility.  In  nearly  every  still  pond, 
or  river,  the  furrows  left  by  the  passage  of  Unios,  or 
fresh  water  clams,  may  be  seen  running  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  made  in  this  manner. 

In  what  manner  does  the  cardium  move  ?  How  does  the  cardium  bury 
itself  in  the  sand  7 


34  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 


CEPHALOPODA. 


Among  the  mollusca,  next  to  the  acephala,  in  the  or- 
der of  organic  developement,  come  the  Cephalopoda,  a 
name  which  signifies  head-footed,  in  allusion  to  the  situa- 
tion of  the  organs  of  locomotion,  which  are  on  the  head. 

These  parts  consist  of  many  long,  flexible,  muscular 
legs,  or  fleshy  processes,  situated  like  the  tentacula  of 
the  polypi,  around  the  opening  of  the  mouth.  These 
members  answer  the  double  purposes  of  legs  and  arms, 
of  feet  and  hands,  for  they  are  not  only  employed  as 
organs  of  locomotion,  but  as  those  of  prehension  also. 

The  Cuttle  Fish. — One  of  these  most  singular  ani- 
mals is  represented  by  fig.  22,  being  one  of  the  Sepice. 
or  Cuttle  fish  tribe,  called  Loligo,  or  Calamary. 


In  addition  to  the  prehensile  powers  of  these  tentacu- 
la, by  which  they  grasp  objects  with  great  force,  by 
twining  around  them,  they  also  have  the  power  of  ad- 
hesion by  means  of  suckers,  in  the  form  of  tubercles 
placed  along  their  inner  sides,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

"  So  great  is  the  force"  says  Mr.  Roget  "  with  which 
the  tentacula  of  the  Cuttle  fish  adhere  to  bodies  by 
means  of  this  apparatus,  that  while  their  muscular  fibres 
continue  contracted,  it  is  easier  to  tear  away  the  sub- 
stance of  the  limb,  than  to  release  it  from  its  attach- 
ments. Even  in  the  dead  animal,"  he  continues,  "  I 
have  found  that  the  suckers  retain  considerable  power 
of  adhesion  to  any  smooth  surface  to  which  they  may 
be  applied." 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  cephalopoda  ?  Why  is  this  term  ap^ 
plied  to  certain  animals  1  Give  some  description  of  the  cuttle  fish. 


CRUSTACEA.  35 

Besides  the  tentacula,  the  Cuttle  fish  is  furnished  with 
a  pair  of  arms,  with  the  ends  expanded  and  also  fur- 
nished with  suckers.  These  long  members  are  employ- 
ed as  cables,  and  the  suckers  as  anchors,  by  which,  these 
animals  fix  themselves  firmly  to  rocks  during  violent 
agitations  of  the  sea,  and  without  which  they  would  un- 
doubtedly sometimes  be  dashed  to  death  against  the 
rocky  shores.  These  long  arms  are  not  employed  by 
the  animal  in  swimming,  the  short  ones  being  used  as 
oars  for  the  purpose  of  impelling  this  singular  creature, 
not  forward  but  backward,  for  in  this  manner  do  all  the 
Cuttle  fish  tribe  swim.  Some  of  them  are  15  or  20 
feet  long. 


ARTICULATA. 

The  animals  now  to  be  noticed  are  articulated,  or  are 
provided  with  joints,  by  means  of  which  their  hard  and 
inflexible  parts  become  the  instruments  of  motion. 
Hence  this  division  includes  animals  having  joints,  wheth- 
er large  or  small,  and  by  which  they  are  at  once  distin- 
guished from  the  mollusca,  where  nothing  analagous  to 
articulation  exists.  This  division  contains  a  vast  assem- 
blage of  living  beings,  including  the  Insects,  Fishes,  and 
Quadrupeds.  The  limits  of  this  work  will  however  al- 
low an  account  of  the  physiology  of  only  a  few  of  the 
most  curious  and  important. 

CRUSTACEA. 

The  Crustacea  are  animals  encased  in  a  compact, 
crusty  frame-work,  composed  chiefly  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  as  the  Lobster,  and  Crab. 

The  joints  of  Crustaceous  animals  are  constructed  in 
the  most  admirable  manner,  by  which  in  most  cases 
every  part  of  the  limb  can  be  moved  in  all  directions. 
They  have  either  three  or  four  pairs  of  legs,  each  of 
which  is  divided  into  five  pieces,  by  as  many  joints.  On 
each  side  of  the  head  there  is  a  long,  and  often  very 

Why  are  certain  animals  denominated  articulata?  What  races  of 
animals  are  articulated  ?  What  are  the  Crustacea  1  What  parts  of  these 
animals  are  called  antennae  7 


36  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

delicately  formed  instruments  called  antenna,  or  feelers. 
These,  in  the  Lobster  are  many  inches  in  length,  and 
composed  of  a  great  number  of  rings,  articulated  to 
each  other  in  a  most  beautiful  manner,  and  furnished 
with  minute  muscles  on  the  inside,  so  as  to  give  them 
motions  in  all  possible  directions,  at  the  will  of  the  ani- 
mal. Some  naturalists  have  supposed  that  these  are 
not  merely  the  organs  of  feeling,  but  that  they  might 
also  serve  for  that  of  hearing,  or  smelling  also. 

As  the  coverings  of  the  Crustacea  are  composed  of 
hard  unyielding  substances,  it  is  obvious  that  the  animal 
within  must  be  restrained  in  its  growth,  unless  some 
means  were  provided  by  which  it  could  relieve  itself 
from  such  confinement,  and  accordingly,  as  nature  every 
where  provides  for  the  comfort  and  perpetuity  of  the 
lowest,  as  well  as  the  highest  of  her  works,  so  in  the 
case  before  us,  the  animal  has  the  power  of  casting  off 
its  old  covering  when  it  becomes  too  small,  the  same  be- 
ing soon  after  replaced  by  a  new  one,  of  ample  dimen- 
sions. 

The  pocess  of  casting  the  Shell. — These  animals  cast 
their  shells  once  a  year ;  and  the  manner  in  which  the 
Lobster,  as  an  example,  draws  himself  out  of  his  old 
case,  his  condition  afterwards,  and  the  incipient  forma- 
tion of  the  new  shell,  has  been  particularly  investigated 
by  the  celebrated  Reaumur. 

The  Lobster,  for  some  time  before  the  process  begins, 
becomes  exceedingly  restless,  undoubtedly  from  the 
pain  excited  by  the  pressure  of  its  shell,  and  thus  the 
poor  animal  is  under  the  necessity  of  making  violent  ef- 
forts to  relieve  itself.  By  this  means  the  shell  is  burst 
open  along  the  chest,  between  the  insertion  of  the  legs. 
The  claws  are  the  first  parts  withdrawn  from  their 
sheaths,  and  next  the  feet,  both  of  which  seem  to  require 
much  muscular  exertion  ;  the  head  next  throws  off  its 
case,  together  with  the  many  jointed  antennae,  and  the 
two  eyes  are  disengaged  from  their  horny  pedicels.  In 
this  operation,  not  only  the  complex  apparatus  of  the 

What  provision  has  nature  made  for  the  growth  of  the  Crustacea  ?  In 
what  manner  does  the  lobster  cast  off  its  crusty  covering? 


CRUSTACEA.  37 

jaws,  but  even  the  horny  cuticle  and  teeth  of  the  stom- 
ach, are  all  cast  off  along  with  the  shell ;  and  last  of  all 
the  tail  is  extricated.  The  whole  process  is  not  accom- 
plished without  long  continued,  violent,  and  painful  ef- 
forts. Sometimes  the  legs  are  lacerated,  or  even  torn 
off  in  attempting  to  withdraw  them  from  the  shell,  and 
not  unfrequently  in  the  younger  animal,  death  follows 
before,  or  soon  after,  its  accomplishment.  Even  under 
the  most  favorable  circumstances,  the  denuded  animal  is 
left  in  the  most  languid  and  helpless  condition,  the  limbs 
being  so  soft,  and  pliant  as  by  the  utmost  exertion,  to 
be  scarcely  able  to  draw  the  body  along. 

The  flesh  is  not,  however,  left  entirely  without  de- 
fence, for  before  the  old  shell  is  cast  away,  preparations 
have  commenced  for  a  new  one  ;  the  membrane  sur- 
rounding the  entire  animal,  and  which  by  the  addition 
of  new  matter  becomes  the  future  shell,  having  already 
acquired  some  density.  As  soon  as  the  old  shell  is  cast 
off,  this  membrane  which  was  flabby  and  wrinkled,  be- 
comes tense  by  the  expansion,  or  sudden  growth  of  the 
animal,  so  that  the  new  shell  is  much  larger  than  the  old 
one.  The  process  of  hardening,  and  thickening  now 
proceeds  rapidly,  and  the  animal  soon  acquires  the  per- 
fect use  of  its  limbs,  with  the  addition  of  about  one  fifth 
of  its  former  weight. 

The  Lobster,  like  some  species  of  polypi,  already  de- 
scribed, when  it  happens  to  loose  a  limb,  soon  acquires 
a  new  one  in  its  place.  Possibly  the  instinct  of  the  ani- 
mal has  taught  it  this  fact,  for  when  caught  by  one  of  the 
claws,  it  will  sometimes  by  a  sudden  jerk  break  the 
limb  off  at  the  first  joint,  or  at  its  junction  with  the  trunk, 
at  which  place  it  appears  that  the  new  limb  grows  with 
the  greatest  facility. 

With  respect  to  the  growth  of  the  new  claw,  Reaumur 
observed  that  the  w7ound  left  by  the  old  one  soon  be- 
comes covered  by  a  delicate  white  membrane,  with  a 
convex  surface.  This  is  gradually  pushed  forward,  be- 
coming thinner  as  it  is  stretched,  until  it  gives  way,  and 
exposes  the  little  new  claw  in  the  soft  state.  The  new 
part  now  enlarges  rapidly,  and  in  a  few  days,  acquires 
a  shell  as  hard  as  the  old  one.  It  however  does  not  at- 


38  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

tain  the  size  of  the  preceeding  claw,  or  its  mate,  and  this 
is  the  reason  why  we  often  see,  both  Lobsters  and  Crabs, 
with  one  of  these  parts  much  smaller  than  the  other. 


INSECTS. 

This  division  of  animals  derives  its  name  from  the 
Latin  insecto,  which  signifies  "  to  cut,"  because  most  of 
them  appear  nearly  divided  by  an  incision  through  the 
middle. 

The  natural  history  of  this  class  of  animals  affords  a 
highly  interesting,  useful  and  curious  field  of  inquiry. 
It  is  a  subject,  in  which  it  appears  to  us,  the  most  in- 
curious can  hardly  avoid  to  take  more  or  less  interest, 
since  its  objects  are  so  common  and  so  diversified  in  ap- 
pearance, as  to  have  forced  themselves,  more  or  less,  on 
the  notice  of  every  one  who  has  his  perfect  senses. 

Insects  have  organs  of  locomotion,  sensation,  sight 
and  taste,  and  many  of  them  are  endowed  with  the  most 
wonderful  instincts  ;  but  they  have  neither  heart,  arteries 
nor  lungs,  though  some  of  them  have  parts  analagous 
to  the  two  latter  organs. 

Changes  in  the  Forms  of  Insects. — Most  Insects  begin 
their  lives  in  the  form  of  larvae,  or  worms,  the  power  of 
flight  being  reserved  until  after  having  passed  through 
several  preparatory  changes,  they  attain  their  perfect 
state.  These  changes  are  termed  metamorphoses,  and 
are  most  conveniently  seen,  in  the  Lepidopterous,  or  But- 
terfly tribes. 

Beginning  with  the  hatching  of  the  egg,  laid  by  the 
Butterfly,  the  following  changes  take  place,  before  a 
Butterfly  is  again  produced.  Most  of  these  eggs  are  no 
larger  than  mustard  seeds,  and  are  attached  to  the  leaves 
of  plants  on  which  the  future  larva,  or  caterpillar  is  to 
feed.  In  this  the  Butterfly  is  directed  by  that  most 
mysterious  property,  called  instinct,  and  by  which  she 
never  fails  to  place  her  eggs  on  such  plants  as  are  the 
most  proper  food  for  her  future  progeny.  Thus  some 


What  is  said  of  the  lobster  acquiring  a  new  claw  in  place  of  one  de- 
stroyed 7  Whence  is  the  term  insect  derived  7  What  organs  have  in- 
sects ?  In  what  form  do  insects  begin  their  lives  1 


INSECTS.  39 

species  place  their  eggs  on  nettles,  others  on  the  parsnip, 
others  on  the  cabbage,  &c.,  and  it  is  found  that  if  the 
caterpillars  produced,  are  transferred  from  one  of  these 
plants  to  the  other,  they  in  most  cases  die  of  starvation, 
or  improper  food,  being  unable  to  partake  of  any  other, 
except  that  on  which  they  are  found. 

The  young  caterpillar  is  at  first  exceedingly  small, 
being  often  less  than  a  line  in  length.  As  they  enlarge 
in  size  their  skins,  being  at  first  somewhat  elastic,  are 
stretched  so  as  to  accommodate  their  growth.  But  this 
part  growing  more  firm  with  age,  finally  refuses  to  yield 
any  further  to  the  growth  of  the  animal.  It  is  then  cast 
off  in  the  following  manner.  The  worm  fastens  the  old 
skin  to  the  side  of  a  leaf,  and  then  breaks  through  that 
part  which  covers  the  head,  and  liberating  its  fore  feet, 
gradually  draws  the  body  out,  the  skin  remaining  sta- 
tionary. But  before  this  is  done,  a  new  skin  has  been 
prepared  underneath,  more  capacious  than  the  former, 
and  which  again  for  a  time  allows  the  insect  to  grow. 
This,  however,  in  its  turn  becomes  too  small ;  or  rather 
the  caterpillar  becomes  again  too  large  for  its  skin,  and 
the  same  process  is  repeated  four  or  five  times  before  the 
full  size  is  attained. 

When  the  larva  is  fully  grown,  and  therefore  when 
there  is  no  further  necessity  for  a  new  skin,  it  makes  a 
much  more  decided  and  important  change  than  those  it 
had  before  undergone ;  for  although  it  had  thrown  off 
coat  after  coat,  it  still  had  become  nothing  more  than  a 
worm.  But  now  it  not  only  strips  itself  of  the  cater- 
pillar's skin  for  the  last  time,  but  so  changes  its  form  as  to 
have  no  appearance  of  what  it  was  before.  It  is  wrap- 
ped in  a  shroud  of  skin,  presenting  no  vestige  of  its  form- 
er legs,  mouth,  or  any  oth^r  member.  It  is  fixed  in  its 
place  by  a  rope  of  silk,  or  wound  up  in  a  cocoon  of  the 
same  material,  and  presents,  in  either  case,  scarcely  any 
signs  of  life.  In  this  condition  it  is  said  to  be  in  its  pupa, 
or  chrysalis  state. 

What  is  said  of  the  different  plants  on  which  the  butterfly  lays  her 
eggs  1  What  change  takes  place  when  the  larva  passes  to  the  chrysalis  1 


40 


MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 


Fig.  25. 


The  Silk  Worm. — Of  the  silk  worm,  Fig.  24,  represents 
Fig.  24.  the    full    grown 

caterpillar,  and 
Fig.  25  the  chrys- 
alis which  it  pro- 
duces, the  latter 
being  deprived 

of  its  cocoon  in  order  to  show  its  form 
and  size. 

The  chrysalis  remains  in  this  state 
for  various  lengths  of  time,  depending 
on  the  species  to  which  it  belongs,  or 
on  the  warmth  to  which  it  is  exposed.  Some  Insects 
continue  in  this  state  for  years,  while  others  emerge  and 
become  perfect  in  a  week,  or  two.  During  this  time 
the  organs  which  are  to  serve  them  in  their  future,  and 
more  elevated  career,  are  preparing ;  although  very  little 
change  can  be  observed  in  the  size,  or  appearance  of  the 
chrysalis. 

When  the  time  arrives  that  these  several  organs  are 
completely  formed,  and  the  butterfly  is  ready  to  assume 
its  rank  among  the  beautiful  and  lively  inhabitants  of 
the  air,  then  it  is  that  the  insect  bursts  the  shroud  in 
which  it  has  so  long  been  enclosed,  and  comes  forth  in 
form  and  colors  so  beautiful,  and  in  spirits,  so  joyous 
Fig.  26.  and  sportive,  as  amply 

to  compensate  for  its 
inglorious,  and  degrad- 
ed origin. 

Our  Insect  has  now 
arrived  to  its  imago, 
perfect,  or  butterfly 
state,  the  Moth,  of  the 
Silk  Worm  being  rep- 
resentes  by  Fig.  26. 
Through  these  several  changes  do  all  the  butterflies, 
and  a  great  proportion  of  the  Insects,  properly  so  called, 
pass.  Some  of  them  enjoy  their  perfect  state  only  for  a 
short  time,  a  few  hours ;  while  others  continue  to  dis- 
play their  beauties,  and  wanton  among  the  sweets  of  the 


How  long  do  insects  remain  in  the  chrysalis  state,  1. 


METAMORPHOSES    OF    INSECTS.  41 

garden  for  weeks  or  months.     In  all  cases  they  deposite 
eggs  for  a  future  race,  before  their  final  exit. 

The  Moth,  or  as  it  is  more  commonly  called  the  But- 
terfly, of  the  silk  worm,  has,  like  all  other  Insects,  six 
legs.  The  wings  are  four,  of  a  greyish  white  color,  with 
two  transverse  undulated  bands  across  them.  They  are 
far  from  being  beautiful  when  compared  with  most  others 
of  the  same  race,  and  are  also  entirely  void  of  that 
sportive  vivacity,  so  common  to  most  other  species. 


METAMORPHOSES    OF    INSECTS. 

The  subject  of  Insect  metamorphos  has  excited  cu- 
riosity, and  has  been  the  object  of  inquiry  and  inves- 
tigation among  naturalists  and  philosophers  in  all  ages 
of  the  world.  Having  given  a  detail  of  the  changes 
which  take  place  during  this  process  in  a  single  species, 
we  are  now  prepared  to  pursue  this  wonderful  subject 
more  at  large,  and  to  shew  the  variety  and  difference  of 
circumstances  which  attend  the  same  changes  in  other 
species. 

Messrs.  Kirby  and  Spence,  in  one  of  the  best  works 
ever  written  on  Insects,  introduce  the  subject  of  their 
metamorphoses  in  the  following  manner.  "Were  a 
naturalist  to  announce  to  the  world  the  discovery  of  an 
animal,  which,  for  the  first  five  years  of  its  life  existed  in 
the  form  of  a  serpent,  which  then,  penetrating  into  the 
earth,  and  weaving  a  shroud  of  pure  silk  of  the  finest 
texture,  contracted  itself  within  this  covering  into  a 
body  without  external  mouth  or  limbs,  and  resembling 
more  than  any  thing  else  an  Egyptian  mummy ;  and 
which,  lastly,  after  remaining  in  this  state,  without  food, 
and  without  motion,  for  three  years  longer,  should,  at 
the  end  of  that  period,  burst  its  silken  cerements,  strug- 
gle through  its  earthy  covering,  and  start  into  day  a 
winged  bird — what  think  you  would  be  the  sensation 
excited  by  this  intelligence  ?  After  the  first  doubts  of 
its  truth  were  dispelled,  what  astonishment  would  sue. 
ceed  !  Among  the  learned  wrhat  surmises,  what  inves. 

What  is  said  of  the  time  which  the  chrysalids  of  insects  remain  in  the 
jorpid  state  ? 

4* 


42  MECHANCAL   FUNCTXOjrS. 

tigations  !  Among  the  vulgar  what  eager  curiosity,  what 
amazement." 

In  the  same  spirit,  Swammardam,  who  spent  most  of 
his  life  in  making  observations  on  Insects,  observes  on  the 
same  subject :  "  This  history  is  so  extraordinary,  so  ama- 
zing in  all  its  circumstances,  that  it  might  very  well  pass 
for  a  romance,  were  it  not  built  upon  the  most  firm 
foundations  of  truth," 

With  respect  to  the  size  and  appearance  of  the  cater- 
pillars and  of  the  chrysalids  they  form,  as  well  as  the  situ- 
ations in  which  they  are  placed,  and  the  time  of  remain- 
ing in  the  torpid  state,  there  are  nearly  as  many  varie- 
ties as  there  are  species  of  Insects.  Some  larvae  de- 
scend deep  into  the  ground  before  they  assume  the  tor- 
pid state,  and  there  remain  three  or  four  years  before 
they  acquire  wings.  Others  weave  small  cocoons,  and 
having  thus  covered  themselves  in  beds  of  silk,  then 
change  to  chrysalids.  These  are  sometimes  construct- 
ed in  the  earth,  and  sometimes  attached  to  the  sides  of 
fences,  or  the  side  of  any  vessel  in  which  the  worm  is 
confined.  If  confined  in  a  glass  vessel  the  observer  may 
witness  the  whole  process  of  weaving  the  cocoon,  and 
of  casting  off  the  old  skin,  by  which  the  chrysalis  be- 
comes apparent. 

The  positions  in  which  the  larvae  place  themselves  in 
order  to  undergo  this  change,  are  also  extremely  various. 
One  species  suspends  itself  to  a  leaf  with  it  she  ad  down- 
wards, being  only  fixed  by  the  tail ;  another  passes  a 
rope  of  silk  around  its  neck,  and  thus  hangs  in  an  oblique 
position ;  while  others  are  simply  glued  in  a  horizontal 
position,  in  any  convenient  place. 

Larva  which  feeds  on  the  parsnip. — There  is  a  com- 
mon larva  which  may  be  seen  feeding  on  the  leaves  of 
parsnips  in  the  autumn,  and  which  every  one  has  noticed 
en  account  of  its  handsome  appearance,  and  the  fetid 
odor  which  it  emits  on  being  disturbed.  The  color  is 
greenish  yellow,  with  bands  of  velvety  black,  and  when 
full  grown  it  is  nearly  two  inches  long.  The  younger  ones 
of  this  caterpillar  would  at  first  be  taken  for  a  different 

What  is  said  of  the  positions  in  which  ehry  salids  are  placed  ? 


METAMORPHOSES    OF    INSECTS.  43 

species,  being  dotted,  or  sprinkled,  with  yellow  and 
black,  instead  of  having  the  colors  well  defined.  If 
the  young  naturalist  will  take  a  sprig  of  the  parsley,  with 
one  of  these  on  it,  and  put  the  whole  into  a  glass  jar,  or 
other  place  of  confinement,  taking  care  to  water  the 
plant,  he  will  soon  find  it  to  be  identical  with  the  large 
ones. 

This  larva  is  remarkable  for  having  on  the  back  of 
the  neck,  an  instrument  composed  of  two  fleshy  horns, 
branching  from  a  common  stem  somewhat  like  the  letter 
Y.  This  organ  appears  to  be  similar  in  some  respects 
to  the  horns  of  snails,  and  is  capable  of  similar  move- 
ments, being  completely  retractile.  When  the  animal 
is  irritated  these  horns  are  projected,  and  it  appears 
from  the  observation  of  Reaumur,  that  this  organ  se- 
cretes an  acid  liquor,  which  emits  the  unpleasant  smell, 
and  which  every  one  who  has  touched  one  of  these  wrorms 
cannot  but  have  perceived.  Reaumur  supposes  that 
this  acid  is  a  means  of  defence  against  the  attacks  of  the 
ichneumon,  a  small  fly  which  deposits  its  eggs  in  the 
flesh  of  the  larvae  of  various  insects. 

This  larva,  when  spinning  the  silken  cord  by  which  it 

27.  Fig.  28.        *S   tO   ^.e  suPPorted  m  ^e 

chrysalis  state  invaria- 
bly fixes  it  around  the  neck 
at  the  junction  of  the  fifth 
and  sixth  segments,  where 
there  is  a  cavity  in  which 
it  is  kept  from  sliding  back- 
wards or  forwards.  This 
cord  appears  to  pass  un- 
der the  skin  of  the  chrysa- 
lis, but  on  examination 
with  a  magnifier,  it  will 
be  seen,  only  almost  con- 
cealed in  a  deep  channel. 
The  larva  and  its  chrysa- 
lis, both  of  the  natural 
size,  are  represented  by  Fig.  27  and  28 ;  the  latter  being 
suspended  by  the  cord  in  the  manner  described. 


44 


MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 


Difference  in  the  Chry solids  of  Butterflies  and  Moths. 
There  are  differences  between  the  chrysalids  of  butter- 
flies and  moths,  and  also  between  these  species  of  In- 
sects, which  it  is  proper  to  point  out  at  this  place.  The 
Fig-  29.  chrysalids  of  Butterflies  are  naked,  that  is, 
they  are  not  covered  with  cocoons,  but  are 
attached  to  trees,  or  other  substances,  by 
'  silken  cords,  passing  around  the  neck,  (Fig. 
28,)  or  are  attached  by  the  tip,  and  hang 
suspended  as  represented  by  Fig.  29.  They 
are  also  angular.  The  antennae  of  Butter- 
flies are  club-shaped,  that  is,  they  are  thick- 
est towards  the  tip,  or  end  in  a  bulb,  as 

seen  by  Fig.  30. 

Fig.  30. 


The  chrysalids  of  the  Moths,  or  Millers,   as  they 

are    sometimes    called,    are    commonly   short    cones 

Fig.  31.    composed  of  several  rings,  and  presenting  no 

angles.     They  are  usually  enclosed  in  brown 

silk  cocoons,  sometimes  glued  to  the  sides  of 

•  trees,  or  fences,  and  sometimes  buried  in  the 
ground.  A  few  are  naked,  and  are  suspended 
by  the  small  end.  Fig.  31  represents  the 
most  common  form.  Both  forms  of  chrysa- 
lids are  occasionally  dotted  with  spots  exactly 
resembling  gold. 

What  difference  is  there  [between  the  chrysalis  of  a  butterfly  and  a 
moth  1    What  is  the  difference  between  the  antennae  of  these  insects  ? 


METAMORPHOSES    OF    INSECTS.  45 

The  antennae  of  Moths  are  somewhat  sword-shaped, 
Fix><  32  tapering  from  the  inser- 

tion to  the  point,  and 
are  sometimes  fringed, 
Fig.  32. 

The  Butterflies  are 
diurnal  insects,  flying 
only  in  the  day.  The 
Moths  are  nocturnal, 
seldom  flying  except  at 
night,  or  after  sun  set. 
Some  of  the  small  spe- 
cies are,  however,  occasionally  seen  by  day. 

Some  of  this  tribe,  called  Hawk  Moths,  have  a  pro- 
boscis, or  tongue  several  inches  long,  by  means  of  which 
they  pump  the  honey  from  the  nectaries  of  flowers. 
Both  Butterflies  and  Moths,  are  furnished  with  four 
wings,  six  legs,  a  proboscis,  and  suck  honey  as  their  chief 
aliment. 

Change  from  the  Chnjsalis  to  the  Butterfly. — Swam- 
mardam,  one  of  the  oldest  and  best  authorities  on  the 
anatomy  of  larvae,  demonstrated  that  even  before  the 
time  when  the  caterpillar  changes  into  the  chrysalis,  all 
the  parts  of  a  butterfly  may  be  discovered  within  its  skin. 
His  directions  for  observing  this  phenomenon  are,  to  take 
a  full  grown  caterpillar,  and  having  tied  it  to  a  thread,  put 
it  into  boiling  water,  and  take  it  out  soon  after ;  thus  its 
external  skin  will  separate,  and  may  be  easily  drawn  off 
from  the  Butterfly,  which  is  contained  folded  up  in  it. 
This  done,  it  is  clearly  and  distinctly  seen,  that  within 
this  skin  of  the  caterpillar,  a  perfect  and  real  Butterfly 
was  hidden. 

On  examining  certain  chrysalids,  which  are  covered 
with  a  light  colored  shroud,  and  consequently  translu- 
cent, we  are  able  to  discovert  he  eyes  of  the  Butterfly,  as 
well  as  its  wings,  which  are  of  small  size  and  folded 
upon  the  sides.  There  may  also  be  observed  several 
slender  ribs  or  divisions,  arising  from  the  head,  and 

What  ist  he  difference  in  their  time  of  flying'?  What  is  said  of  the 
existence  of  the  butterfly  within  the  skin  of  the  larva'?  What  is  said  of 
the  butterfly  in  the  chrysalis  1 


46 


MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 


which  on  more  minute  examination  may  be  seen  to  con- 
sist of  the  two  filaments  of  the  tongue,  or  proboscis,  the 
legs,  and  the  antennae  of  the  Butterfly. 

It  appears  therefore,  that  during  the  chrysalis  state, 
the  future  organs  \vhich  the  Butterfly  requires  are  in  the 
progress  of  perfection,  as  those  of  the  chicken  are  in 
the  egg,  and  that  when  the  Insect  has  remained  under 
this  form,  a  sufficient  length  of  time  for  these  parts  to 

fain  a  proper  degree  of  consistence  and  strength,  it  then 
ursts  open  the  membrane,  and  makes  its  escape,  as  the 
young  quail  does  from  its  egg-shell. 

Just  before  the  Butterfly  emerges  from  its  confine- 
ment, it  is  easy  to  see,  in  some  chrysalids,  the  form  of 
the  legs,  antennas,  and  tongue,  and  even  the  color  of  the 
wings.  The  extremities  of  the  legs  may  be  seen  to 
move,  the  wings  to  enlarge,  and  finally  the  whole  insect 
to  struggle  as  if  determined  no  longer  to  submit  to  con- 
finement. After  a  few  such  efforts,  the  membrane  of 
the  chrysalis  gives  way  in  a  longitudinal  rent  down  the 
back,  where  a  suture  may  be  observed,  undoubtedly  for 
this  purpose.  The  rent  then  extends  over  the  head,  and 
down  the  breast,  and  after  various  efforts  and  contor- 
tions, the  butterfly  finally  disengages  itself  entirely  from 
its  covering,  leaving  it  divided  into  several  sections,  as 
Fig.  33.  represented  by  Fig.  33.  But  the  Insect 
though  now  disengaged  from  its  prison, 
has  not  yet  attained  its  full  perfection,  for 
besides  being  exceedingly  weak,  so  as 
hardly  to  be  able  to  crawl,  its  wings  are 
folded  and  doubled  together  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  make  them  appear  like  pieces 
of  wet  paper,  as  shown  by  Fig.  34.  The 
spots  and  markings  are  also  indistinct,  as 
though  their  wet  condition  had  made  the 
colors  run  into  each  other.  But  they 
expand  with  such  rapidity,  that,  accord- 
ing to  Swammardam,  "the  naked  eye 
,  cannot  trace  their  unfolding,  for,  from 
reaching  scarce  half  the  length  of  the 
body,  they  acquire,  O  miracle  of  mira- 
cles !  in  the  short  space  of  about  half  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  their  full  extent,  and 


METAMORPHOSES    OF    INSECTS.  47 

bigness."     The  colorings  peculiar  to  each  species  also 
become  defined  and  perfect  as  the  wings  expand. 

The  means  employed  to  effect  a  change  so  wonder- 
ful with  respect  to  the  wings,  and  in  so  short  a  time,  has 
not  been  left  unexplained. 

The  Wings  of  the  young  Butterfly,  how  expanded. — 
The  wings  of  Butterflies  are  composed  of  two  fine 
membranes  between  which  are  little  veins  or  ribs  re- 
sembling those  of  the  leaves  of  some  plants.  These 
may  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  when  the  scales,  or  dust 
which  colors  the  wings  is  rubbed  off,  and  are  called 
nervures.  They  are  hollow  tubes,  having  a  communi- 
cation at  the  insertion  of  the  wing  with  the  body  of  the 
Insect.  Into  these,  the  young  Butterfly  forces  a  quanti- 
ty of  air,  and  perhaps  also  a  fluid,  and  by  the  distention 
of  which,  the  folds  and  wrinkles  of  the  soft  and  wet 
wings  are  in  a  few  moments  obliterated.  The  nervures, 
and  also  the  fully  developed  wings  are  shown  by  Fig.  35. 


These  when  compared  with  Fig.  34,  will  show  the  change 
produced  by  the  means  above  described  in  "  half  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour,"  and  at  the  sight  of  which  Swammardam 
could  not  help  exclaiming,  O  !  miracle  of  miracles  !  The 
whole  process,  indeed,  from  the  hatching  of  the  egg,  to 
the  perfection  of  the  Butterfly,  though  not  a  miracle,  be- 
cause the  whole  is  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature, 
must  ever  be  considered  among  the  most  wonderful  se- 

In  what  manner  does  the  butterfly  make  its  escape  from  the  chrysalis  ? 
Is  the  insect  perfect  when  thus  disengaged  1  In  what  manner  are  the  new 
wings  of  the  butterfly  unfolded  and  distended  '« 


48 


MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 


ries  of  natural  phenomena  which  man  has  been  allowed 
to  witness.  Who  can  study  such  traits  of  nature,  with- 
out acknowledging  the  care,  design,  and  wisdom  of  the 
Creator  to  be  displayed  in  them  in  a  most  striking  and 
wonderful  degree. 

Wing  Scales  of  Butterflies. — The  soft  down  which 
covers  the  wings  of  Butterflies  and  Moths,  which  ap- 
pears like  the  finest  dust,  and  by  which  all  the  splendid 
variety  of  colors  are  given  to  these  insects,  is  found  when 
magnified,  to  consist,  of  scales,  or  feathers,  of  different, 
but  regular  forms.  It  is  from  these  scales  that  the 
name  of  this  genus,  Lepidoptera,  "scaly-winged,"  is 
given. 

According  to  some  naturalists,  these  minute  parts 
should  be  considered  rather  as  feathers  than  as  scales, 
since  they  are  affixed  to  the  wings  by  minute  quills. 
But  others  consider  them  as  scales  from  their  being 
composed  of  merely  membranous  plates,  having  nothing 
in  common  with  feathers  excepting  perhaps,  the  manner 
in  which  they  are  attached.  The  reader  may  have  the 
Fig.  36.  . 


opportunity  of  deciding  this  matter  for  himself,  by  con- 
sulting Fig.  36,  where  the  forms  of  a  number  of  these 
parts  are  shown,  highly  magnified.  The  number  of 
these  on  the  wings  of  the  larger  Butterflies,  must  amount 


METAMORPHOSES    OF   INSECTS.  49 

to  millions,  since  Leuwenhoeck,  the  best  observer  on 
such  subjects,  found  more  than  400,000,  of  them  on  the 
wings  of  the  silk  worm  Moth,  which  is  comparatively  a 
small  Insect. 

The  construction  and  arrangement  of  the  parts  of 
these  scales  are  very  regular  and  beautiful,  their  sur- 
faces being  striated  with  parallel,  and  equidistant  lines, 
the  distinct  visibility  of  which,  in  those  from  the  Pontia 
brassica  or  cabbage  Butterfly,  is  considered  as  afford- 
ing an  excellent  test  of  the  goodness  of  microscopes. 

The  forms  of  these  scales  as  seen  by  the  adjoining 
figures,  are  exceedingly  various,  as  also  their  sizes,  when 
magnified  by  the  same  power.  These  differences  of 
form  occur  not  only  in  the  different  species,  but  also  on 
different  parts  of  the  wings  and  body  of  the  same  In- 
sect ;  for  the  surface  of  the  body  generally,  as  well  as 
the  legs,  and  in  some  species  the  antennae  are  more  or 
less  covered  with  these  scales.  These  forms  are  indeed 
so  various  on  different  parts  of  the  same  Insect,  that  in 
the  works  of  that  distinguished  naturalist,  Lyonet,  there 
are  six  quarto  plates  nearly  covered  with  the  delineations 
of  different  forms  of  these  scales  found  on  a  Moth  of 
the  silk  worm  tribe,  the  Bombyx  cossus. 

The  arrangement  of  these  scales  upon  the  wings  are 
in  regular  transverse  lines,  the  ends  of  one  row  lying 
over  the  basis  of  the  next,  like  the  shingles  on  the  roof  of 
a  house.  When  these  are  removed  from  both  sides  of 
the  wings,  of  a  Butterfly  it  will  be  seen  that  these  parts 
are  exceedingly  thin,  and  transparent  like  the  wings  of 
the  dragon  fly  and  bee. 

Red  drops  emitted  by  Butterflies. — Several  species  of 
Butterflies  just  after  the  time  of  changing  from  the  chrys- 
alis to  the  perfect  state,  or  perhaps  at  that  of  emerging 
from  their  place  of  confinement,  emit  several  drops  of 
a  red  fluid,  resembling  blood  in  appearance.  When  a 
great  number  of  these  insects  have  been  produced  at 

Whence  does  the  genus  to  which  the  butterfly  belongs  derive  its  name? 
What  is  said  with  respect  to  down  on  the  wings  being  feathers  1  What 
is  said  of  these  scales  with  respect  to  their  being  a  test  of  the  goodness  of 
microscopes  1  What  is  said  of  the  different  forms  of  these  scales  ?  How 
are  they  arranged  on  the  wings  -of  -the  insect  ? 

5 


50  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

the  same  time,  and  place,  as  sometimes  happens,  the 
people  have  been  struck  with  terror  and  dismay,  taking 
these  drops  for  the  effects  of  a  shower  of  blood,  which 
of  course  could  portend  nothing  less  than  some  direful 
calamity  to  the  country.  The  author  of  this  volume, 
last  October,  obtained  a  specimen  of  these  bloody  drops, 
from  the  Papilio  urticce,  the  caterpillar  of  which  was 
taken  from  the  common  nettle,  and  underwent  the  met- 
amorphoses in  confinement.  The  red  drops  happening 
to  fall  on  a  piece  of  oil  cloth  carpet,  were  cut  out  and 
preserved.  They  are  of  a  deep  red  and  do  not  fade  by 
keeping.  In  consequence  of  this  circumstance,  the  au- 
thor's attention  was  excited  to  the  subject  and  he  threw 
together  the  following  remarks  and  facts,  which  were 
offered  as  a  little  contribution  to  "  The  Hartford  Natur- 
al History  Society." 

Ancient  showers  of  Blood  explained  by  facts,  in  the 
Natural  History  of  the  Butterfly. — It  is  well  known  to 
the  general  reader,  that  various  authors  have  described 
showers  of  blood  as  falling  from  the  heavens,  and  that 
such  phenomena  have  been  considered  the  miraculous, 
precursors  of  some  extraordinary,  or  direful  event. 
Thus  Ovid  has  commemorated  such  an  occurrence 
among  the  other  prodigies  which  attended  the  violent 
death  of  the  great  Roman  dictator. 

"  With  threatning  signs  the  lowering  skies  were  filled. 
And  sanguine  drops  from  murky  clouds  distilled." 

Such  occurrences  are  alluded  to  by  several  other 
ancient  writers,  both  Greek,  and  Roman.  Homer 
speaks  of  showers  of  blood  which  fell  before  his  time, 
and  also  one  or  two,  of  which  it  would  appear  that  he 
was  an  eye  witness.  Such  phenomena  he  declares  in- 
dicate the  direct  and  violent  encroachmentof  the  gods 
on  the  established  laws  of  nature.  Cicero  also  alludes 
to  such  events,  and  was  the  first  to  doubt  their  preter- 
natural origin  ;  but  in  his  attempts  to  account  for  them 
on  natural  principles,  he  involves  suppositions  not  less 
difficult  to  explain  than  the  phenomenon  itself,  even 
without  reference  to  its  real  cause. 

Dion  Cassius,  who  flourished  in  the  third  century, 
mentions  a  shower  of  blood  which  fell  in  Egypt  in  the 


METAMORPHOSES    OF    INSECTS.  51 

time  of  Octavian.  This  he  considers  a  very  rare  and 
extraordinary  occurrence,  not  however,  it  would  seem, 
because  it  was  of  blood,  but  because,  as  he  states,  it  fell 
in  a  country  where  showers  of  any  kind  are  unknown. 

Stowe,  the  old  British  Chronicler  also  speaks  of  sev- 
eral cases  of  what  he  calls  blood-rain.  "  In  ths  days  of 
Rivalla,"  says  he,  "  it  rained  bloud  three  days,  and  then 
a  great  mortalitie  caused  almost  desolation."  Again, 
"  in  the  time  of  Brithricus  of  the  bloud  of  Cerdicus,  who 
was  king  of  the  West  Saxons  for  seventeen  years,  it 
rained  bloud,  which  falling  on  mens'  clothes  appeared 
like  crosses."  Nor  does  Hollingshed  fail  to  record  some 
scraps  of  the  same  history.  He  relates  that  in  the  fifth 
century,  "  at  Yorke  it  rained  bloud,"  and  that  in  the 
seventh,  "  corne,  as  it  was  gathered  in  the  herveste-time, 
appeared  bloudie."  From  Batmans'  "Doome"  we  find 
that  in  1553,  it  was  deemed  among  the  fore  warnings  of 
the  deaths  of  Charles,  and  Philip,  Dukes  of  Brunswick, 
that  "there  were  drops  of  bloude  upon  herbs  and 
trees." 

In  the  days  of  Nero  it  is  said  that  blood-rain  fell  in 
such  quantities  as  to  tinge  some  rivers  of  a  red  color. 
It  is  likewise  recorded  by  historians  that  the  phenome- 
non, or  miracle  of  falling  blood,  either  seen  on  the  leaves 
of  plants,  or  on  stones,  or  fences,  has  occurred  at  vari- 
ous times  and  places,  ever  since  the  Christian  Era.  But 
after  having  quoted  the  above  authorities,  it  will  be 
needless  to  specify  others  to  establish  the  general  fact  of 
such  records.  It  will  therefore  be  sufficient  to  state 
that  two  instances  of  bloody  rain  are  recorded  to  have 
fallen  in  the  tenth  century ;  one  in  the  eleventh ;  two 
in  the  twelfth  ;  one  in  the  thirteenth ;  two  in  the  four- 
teenth ;  one  in  the  fifteenth  ;  and  five  in  the  sixteenth. 

Thus,  although  it  appears  that  almost  from  the  earli- 
est times  of  history,  it  has  been  understood  and  believed 
that  showers  of  blood  actually  falling  from  the  air,  were 
not  uncommon,  still  no  one  as  we  shall  see  directly,  until 
about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  under- 
took any  serious  investigations  for  the  purpose  of  ac- 
counting for  phenomena  so  extraordinary. 

It  is  most  probable  this  neglect  of  inquiry  arose  from 
a  superstitious  dread  of  interfering  with  so  sacred  a 


5£  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

subject ;  for  it  was  generally  believed  that  such  showers 
undoubtedly  prognosticated  some  direful  event,  and 
hence  they  were  received  as  miraculous  warnings,  or 
special  interpositions  of  providence  in  the  affairs  of 
men.  Under  such  a  belief,  we  can  hardly  wonder  that 
few  or  none  could  be  found,  who  were  so  bold,  or  per- 
haps wicked,  as  to  attempt  to  account  for  such  occurren- 
ces on  natural  principles.  Such  conduct  would  have 
been  a  virtual  denial  of  the  miracle  itself,  or  at  least  a 
fool  hardy  attempt  to  explain  the  acknowledged  special 
communications  of  heaven  by  a  reference  to  the  ordi- 
nary laws  of  nature. 

It  is  true  that  in  the  time  of  Hippocrates,  a  learned 
doctor  named  Garceus,  declared  it  as  his  opinion,  that 
blood-rain,  was  common  rain  boiled  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun,  but  with  this  exception,  we  find  no  expressions  of 
doubt  with  respect  to  the  miracle,  or  at  least  no  attempt 
to  solve  the  mystery,  from  the  time  of  Cicero  to  that  of 
the  celebrated  naturalist  Reaumur,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 

Before  we  proceed  to  the  explanation,  it  may  be 
proper  to  remark,  that  so  far  as  we  know,  all  the  ancient 
accounts  of  bloody  rain,  fail  entirely  with  respect  to 
the  detail  of  attending  circumstances.  We  are  not  in- 
formed whether  such  showers  fell  from  thick  clouds,  ac- 
companied with  lightning  and  thunder.  Whether  they 
fell  by  night  or  by  day,  or  indeed  whether  the  red  drops 
were  ever  seen  to  descend,  or  whether  they  were  first 
discovered  on  the  leaves  of  plants,  and  on  stones  and 
fences.  Hence  we  may  fairly  conclude  that  the  fall  of 
bloody  showers  have  only  been  inferred  from  appear- 
ances on,  or  near  the  ground. 

It  is  now  known  that  there  are  several  species  of  But- 
terfly which  emit  red  drops,  immediately  after  their  emer- 
gence from  the  chrysalis,  as  the  Papilio  Io,or  the  peacock 
Butterfly ;  the  Papilio  urticse,  and  several  others. 

The  report  of  Reaumur  to  which  we  have  before  al- 
luded, and  which  accounts  satisfactorily  for  these  bloody 
showers,  is  as  follows.  In  the  beginning  of  July  1608, 
the  people  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,  wrere  in  the  utmost  alarm 
from  what  they  thought  a  shower  of  blood,  that  had 
fjajlen  in,  the  suburbs,  and  some  miles  around  the  place. 


METAMORPHOSES    OF    INSECTS.  53 

M.  de  Peiresc,  a  philosopher,  who  among  other  kinds  of 
knowledge,  had  not  neglected  that  of  the  operations  and 
economy  of  Insects,  was  consulted  on  the  subject.  He 
found  the  walls  of  a  church-yard  near  the  place,  and  the 
walls  of  several  small  villages  in  the  neighborhood  to  be 
spotted  with  large  drops  of  a  blood  colored  Iqiuid.  A 
little  before  this  time  this  gentleman  had  happened  to 
pick  up  a  large  and  beautiful  chrysalis  which  he  had 
carefully  laid  in  a  box.  Immediately  after  its  transform- 
ation into  the  Butterfly  state,  he  remarked  that  it  had  left 
a  large  drop  of  a  blood  colored  liquid  in  the  bottom  of 
the  box.  The  red  stains  on  the  walls,  and  the  stones  near 
the  highways,  and  on  the  leaves  of  plants  in  the  fields, 
were  found  to  be  perfectly  similar  to  that  left  on  the 
bottom  of  the  box.  M.  de  Peiresc  hesitated  no  longer 
to  pronounce,  that  all  the  blood  colored  stains  wherever 
they  appeared,  proceeded  from  the  same  cause.  The 
prodigious  number  of  Butterflies  which  he  at  the  same 
time  saw  flying  in  the  air  confirmed  his  original  idea. 
He  likewise  observed  that  the  drops  of  miraculous  rain 
were  never  found  in  the  middle  of  the  town,  but  that 
they  appeared  only  in  places  bordering  upon  the  coun- 
try ;  and  that  they  never  fell  upon  the  tops  of  houses, 
or  upon  walls  more  elevated  than  the  height  to  which 
Butterflies  generally  rise.  What  the  investigator  of 
these  facts  saw  himself,  he  showed  to  many  persons  of 
knowledge,  or  curiosity,  and  finally  established  as  an  in- 
contestible  fact,  that  the  pretended  drops  of  blood  were 
in  reality  nothing  more  than  drops  of  red  liquid  deposit- 
ed by  these  Butterflies.  It  is  also  deserving  of  remark, 
that  all  the  showers  of  blood  that  have  been  recorded 
to  have  happened,  took  place  in  the  warm  seasons  of 
the  year,  when  Butterflies  are  most  numerous. 

And  now  who  will  deny  the  practical  use  of  Ento- 
mology, when  these  simple  facts  have  been  the  means 
of  delivering  the  world  from  the  thraldom  of  supersti- 
tious fear,  which  from  time  immemorial  has  been  con- 
sequent upon  the  belief  in  miraculous  showers  of  blood. 
When  Newton  demonstrated  that  the  comets,  instead  of 
wandering  in  any  direction  and  without  order,  were  con- 
fined to  regular  orbits,  and  therefore  that  we  of  the  earth, 


54  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONSV 

had  nothing  to  fear  from  them,  Astronomy  was  liailed  as 
the  noblest  and  most  useful  of  sciences  on  this  very  ac- 
count ;  and  yet  Astronomy  in  that  instance  did  nothing 
more  for  the  world  than  Entomology  has  done  in  the 
case  before  us. 

Tusseh  Silk  Worm. — Before  we  leave  the  Lepidop- 
terous  Insects,  we  will  describe  a  species  of  Silk  Worm 
found  in  India,  which  although  it  is  not  domesticated  like 
the  common  one  of  Europe  and  America,  the  Bombyx 
mori,  still  appears  from  time  immemorial  to  have  fur- 
nished the  natives  with  an  abundance  of  an  inferior 
kind  of  silk  for  common  uses.  It  is  called  the  Tusseh 
Silk  Worm,  and  is  found  in  abundance  in  many  parts  of 
Bengal  and  the  adjoining  provinces,  and  the  cocoons  are 
reeled  and  wove  into  a  coarse,  dark  colored,  but  most 
durable  fabric  called  Tusseh  doothies,  much  worn  by  the 
Brahmins,  and  other  classes  of  Hindoos. 

This  Silk  Worm,  whether  from  want  of  skill,  or  from 
the  wild  habits  of  the  Moths,  is  unknown,  has  never 
been  reared  in  the  usual  manner  of  other  worms ;  the 
natives  therefore  every  year,  at  the  proper  time,  go  into 
the  jungles  and  find  the  young  worms  on  the  limbs  of 
certain  trees,  which  they  cut  off  and  convey  to  other 
trees  of  the  same  kinds  near  their  habitations.  These 
are  known  by  the  native  names  of  asseen,  and  byers 
trees,  and  these  trees  are  guarded  day  and  night,  in  or- 
der to  prevent  birds  and  bats  from  destroying  the  young 
caterpillars.  In  two  or  three  weeks,  these  worms  ac- 
quire nearly  their  full  size,  being  monsters  of  four  inches 
in  length,  and  three  in  circumference ;  their  colors 
are  of  a  light  green,  with  a  yellowish  stripe  on  each 
side,  the  sixth  and  seventh  rings  being  marked  with  an 
oblong  golden  spot.  From  the  back  issue  a  few  long, 
coarse,  distinct  hairs,  with  others  of  a  smaller  size  scat- 
tered over  the  body,  Fig.  37. 

When  these  worms  are  ready  to  spin  their  cocoons  in 
which  they  change  to  the  chrysalis  state,  they  begin  by 
attaching  glutinous  filaments  to  a  leaf  as  a  foundation, 
and  afterwards  spin  a  strong  cord  by  which  the  future 
cocoon  is  suspended  to  a  twig  for  additional  security. 
The  cocoon  is  of  an  oval  form  and  firm  texture,  as  rep- 


BEETLES.  55 

resented  by  Fig.  37  a.     The  chrysalis  remains  in  the 

Fig.  37. 


torpid  state  for  nine  months,  when  it  discharges  from 
the  mouth  a  quantity  of  corrosive  liquor,  which  softens 
the  upper  end  of  the  cocoon,  and  the  moth  makes  its 
escape. 

These  Insects  are  of  enormous  size,  the  largest  meas- 
uring with  the  wings  spread,  six,  or  even  eight  inches 
across.  They  are  exceedingly  vigorous  on  the  wing, 
and  fly  to  great  distances.  The  natives  often  catch,  and 
mark  them,  and  then  let  them  fly ;  the  marks  of  the 
different  districts  being  known,  it  is  said  they  are  fre- 
quently caught  more  than  a  hundred  miles  distant  from 
the  places  where  they  were  marked. 

The  wings  of  these  insects  are  of  a  uniform  yellowish 
brown,  with  one  round  transparent  spot  in  each  of  the 
fore  wings.  They  live  from  six  to  twelve  days,  deposite 
their  eggs  and  die. 

BEETLES. 

The  Beetles  belong  to  the  Linnaean  order  Coleoptera, 
which  word  signifies  "wing-sheathed,"  so  called,  because 
these  insects  are  provided  with  hard  wing  cases,  with 
which  they  cover,  when  at  rest,  their  proper  wings. 
These  cases  are  called  elytra,  and  when  shut  together, 
form  a  longitudinal  suture  along  the  back.  A  great 

To  what  order  of  insects  do  the  beetles  belong?  What  is  the  mean- 
ing of  the  term  coleoptera  1  What  are  the  wing  cases  of  these  insects 
called  I 


56  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

variety  of  this  tribe  are  known  under  the  common  ap- 
pellation of  bugs.  Most  of  them  fly  only  in  the  night, 
and  some  of  the  larger,  make  a  deep  toned  sound  with 
their  wings,  so  loud  as  to  be  heard  many  rods  distant. 

The  larvae  of  some  of  this  tribe,  in  consequence  of 
their  living  under  the  ground  and  destroying  the  roots  of 
plants,  which  serve  them  for  food,  are  exceedingly  de- 
structive to  the  farmer.  The  perfect  insects  also  some- 
times make  terrible  desolation  among  the  forest,  and 
other  trees. 

The  Blind  Beetle.  The  Melolontha  vulgaris,  called 
also  Chafer,  Blind  Beetle,  or  more  commonly  Cock- 
chafer, is  one  of  these  insects. 

Fig.  38.  The   larva  of  this   beetle  is 

known  to  farmers  under  the 
name  of  the  White  worm,  and 
is  represented  by  Fig.  38.  The 
eggs  of  these  worms  are  deposi- 
ted in  the  ground  by  the  parent 
insect,  and  when  first  hatched 
are  of  very  small  size.  As  they 
grow,  they  change  their  skins 
several  times,  and  at  the  end  of  four  years  during 
which  time  they  remain  in  the  earth,  they  acquire  the 
size  represented,  having  six  legs,  armed  with  strong 
claws,  and  a  reddish  head.  During  its  subterranean 
residence,  it  lives  on  the  roots  of  grass,  sometimes  com- 
mitting the  most  deplorable  ravages.  When  their  num- 
bers are  great  they  cut  off  all  the  roots  of  the  grass  in 
the  richest  meadows,  leaving  the  turf  entirely  detached 
and  dead,  so  that  it  may  be  rolled  up  by  the  hands  like 
a  carpet  without  the  aid  of  a  turfing  knife.  Under- 
neath, the  soil  appears  pulverized,  and  turned  into  a 
soft  mould  like  the  prepared  bed  of  a  garden.  In  this, 
the  worms  are  seen  coiled  up  and  lying  on  their  backs, 
generally  almost  motionless. 

Some  years  since  a  poor  farmer  in  Norwich,  England, 
suffered  so  much  from  these  worms  as  to  destroy  all 
his  hopes,  and  the  authority  of  that  city  out  of  compas- 
sion, voted  him  25  pounds  to  assist  him  under  such  a 
calamity.  This  man  and  his  servant  testified,  that  they 


BEETLES. 


57 


Fig.  39. 


had  gathered  eighty  bushels  of  these  obnoxious  crea- 
tures, but  still  his  farm  for  the  season  was  destroyed. 
At  the  close  of  the  fourth  year  these  larva  construct 
for  themselves  large  oval  cocoons,  having  first  descended 
to  the  depth,  it  is  said,  sometimes  of  five  or  six  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

These  cocoons  are  of  an  oval  form,  of  considerable 
bulk,  and  are  constructed  with  a  good  deal  of  ingenuity, 
and  reference  to  comfort,  being  wove  of  silk  and  lined 
with  the  same. 

Fig.  39  shows  the  section  of  one 
of  these  cases  with  the  worm  in  it. 
The  covering  of  this  chrysalis  is  so 
Ithin  and  transparent  that  all  parts 
lof  the  Insect  may  be  seen  through 
'it.  In  the  month  of  February  the 
perfect  Insect  rends  its  envelope, 
and  emerges  from  it,  though  still 
several  feet  under  ground.  It  is  now  yellowish,  soft, 
and  weak,  but  gradually  acquires  strength  and  firmness, 
and  begins  slowly  to  make  its  way  towards  the  surface. 
This  however,  it  does  not  reach  until  May,  when  it  is 
not  uncommon  to  find  these  yellowish  bugs,  as  they  are 
called,  just  under  the  surface,  and  about  which  time  they 
assume  their  new  and  elevated  condition  as  inhabitants 
of  the  air. 

Fig-  40-  The    Cock-chafer,  is  a 

strong  Insect  of  a  yellow- 
ish brown  color ;  antennae 
largely  club-shaped  ;  feet 
armed  with  sharp  claws, 
and  the  body  somewhat 
hairy.  Fig.  40  represents 
this  Insect  of  the  natural 
size. 

During  the  day  these  Beetles  remain  motionless,  some- 
times concealing  themselves  under  the  bark  of  trees 
and  about  fences ;  but  on  the  setting  of  the  sun  they 
issue  forth  from  their  hiding  places  to  feed  on  the  leaves 
of  various  trees,  and  sometimes  their  numbers  are  such 
as  to  do  as  much  mischief  in  their  perfect  state,  as  they 
did  when  in  that  of  the  larvae,  devastating  whole  forests 


58  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  leave  a  green  leaf  behind 
them. 

Devastations  committed  by  this  Beetle.  In  the  Philo- 
sophical Transactions,  for  the  year  1697,  there  is  an 
account  of  the  appearance  of  these  insects  in  certain 
parts  of  Ireland,  and  the  ravages  they  committed  there. 
"  Multitudes,"  says  this  statement,  "  appeared  among  the 
trees  and  hedges  in  the  day  time,  hanging  by  the  boughs 
in  clusters,  like  bees,  when  they  swarm.  In  this  pos- 
ture they  continued,  with  little  or  no  motion  during  the 
heat  of  the  sun ;  but  towards  evening  they  would  all 
disperse,  and  fly  about  with  a  strange  humming  noise, 
like  the  beating  of  distant  drums,  and  in  such  vast  num- 
bers that  they  darkened  the  air  for  the  space  of  two  or 
three  square  miles.  Persons  travelling  on  the  roads,  or 
abroad  in  the  fields,  found  it  very  uneasy  to  make  their 
way  through  them,  they  would  so  beat,  and  knock  them- 
selves against  their  faces  in  their  flight,  and  with  such 
force  as  to  make  the  place  smart,  and  leave  a  mark 
behind  them.  In  a  short  time  after  their  coming,  they 
had  so  entirely  eaten  up,  and  destroyed  all  the  leaves  on 
the  trees  for  some  miles  around,  that  the  whole  country 
though  in  the  middle  of  summer,  was  left  as  bare  as  in 
the  depth  of  winter  ;  and  the  noise  they  made  in  gnaw- 
ing the  leaves  made  a  sound  resembling  the  sawing  of 
timber.  They  also  came  into  the  gardens  and  destroyed 
the  buds,  blossoms,  and  leaves  of  all  the  fruit  trees  so 
that  they  left  them  perfectly  naked  :  nay,  many  that 
were  more  delicate  than  the  rest,  lost  their  sap,  as  well 
as  leaves,  and  quite  withered  away,  so  that  they  never 
recovered  again. 

Their  numerous  young  hatched  from  the  eggs,  which 
they  had  lodged  under  ground,  near  the  surface,  did 
still  more  harm  in  that  close  retirement,  than  all  the 
flying  swarms  of  their  parents  had  done  abroad  ;  for 
this  destructive  brood  lying  under  ground,  ate  up  the 
roots  of  corn  and  grass,  and  thus  consumed  the  support 
of  both  man  and  beast."  Many  other  instances  of  similar 
devastations  are  recorded  to  have  been  committed  by 
these  insects  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 


MANTIS.  59 


MANTIS. 

There  is  a  Hemipterous,  or  half-winged  Insect  of 
very  singular  manners  and  habits  called  the  Orator 
Mantis,  and  sometimes  the  Praying  Mantis,  from  the 
position  in  which  it  is  usually  found.  This  Insect  is  of 
considerable  size ;  the  elytra,  or  wing  cases  are  of  a 
bright  green  color,  and  on  each  of  the  wings  there  is  a 
black  spot. 

The  common  posture  of  the  Mantis  is  that  of  resting 

on  its  hind  legs,  and  erecting  its  fore  feet,  holding  them, 

close  together  and  giving  them  a  quick  motion,  as  if,  as 

some  say,  it  was  in  the  act  of  praying,  Fig.  41.     Hence 

Fig.  41. 


among  certain  people,  this  creature  has  been  held  in 
great  veneration  from  time  immemorial.  It  has  been 
supposed  to  tell  fortunes  ;  forewarn  of  evils,  and  to  do 
many  other  things,  according  to  the  vividness  of  super- 
stitious imaginations.  Dr.  Moufet,  who  wrote  a  work 
in  folio,  on  insects,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  very  seri- 
ously tells  us  of  this  insect,  "  that  they  are  called  Mantes, 
that  is,  fortune  tellers,  either  because  by  their  coming 
they  do  show  the  spring  to  be  at  hand,  so  Anacreon, 
the  poet  sang ;  or  else  they  foretel  death,  or  famine,  as 
Caelius,  the  scholiast  of  Theocritus,  writes ;  or,  lastly, 
because  it  always  holds  up  its  fore  feet  like  hands  pray- 
ing, as  it  were,  after  the  manner  of  their  diviners,  who, 
in  that  gesture,  did  pour  out  their  supplications  to  their 
gods.  So  divine  a  creature  is  this  esteemed,  that  if  a 
child  asks  the  way  to  such  a  place,  she  will  stretch  out 
one  of  her  feet,  and  show  him  the  right  way,  and  sel- 


60  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

dom,  or  never  misses.  As  she  resembleth  these  divi- 
ners in  the  elevation  of  her  hands,  so  also,  in  likeness  of 
motion,  for  they  do  not  sport  themselves  as  others  do, 
nor  leap,  nor  play,  but  walking  softly,  she  returns  again 
modestly,  and  shows  forth  a  kind  of  mature  gravity." 
This  is  only  the  position  of  the  Mantis,  that  it  takes  to 
catch  its  prey. 

The  praying  position,  and  soft  modesty  of  this  insect, 
which  charity  and  superstition  thus  metamorphosed  into 
kindness  and  virtue,  by  a  more  attentive  examination  of 
its  habits,  prove  to  be  nothing  more  than  cunning  devices 
to  secure  its  prey,  being  one  of  the  most  cruel  and  vo- 
racious of  all  the  Insect  tribes.  The  patience  of  the 
Mantis,  says  Bingley,  in  waiting  for  its  prey,  is  remarka- 
ble, and  the  posture  to  which  superstition  has  attribu- 
ted devotion,  is  no  other  than  the  means  used  to  catch 
it.  When  it  has  fixed  its  eye  on  an  insect,  it  rarely 
loses  sight  of  it,  though  it  may  cost  some  hours  to  accom- 
plish its  destruction.  If  it  see  an  insect  a  little  beyond 
its  reach,  over  its  head,  it  slowly  erects  its  long  thorax, 
then  resting  on  the  posterior  legs,  it  gradually  raises  the 
anterior  also.  If  this  brings  it  near  enough  to  the  in- 
sect, it  throws  open  the  last  joint  of  its  fore  paws,  and 
snaps  the  object  between  the  spines  that  are  set  in  rows 
on  the  second  joint.  If  it  is  unsuccessful,  the  paws  are 
not  retracted,  but  still  held  forth  waiting  for  the  victim 
to  come  again  within  its  reach.  Should  the  insect  go 
far  from  the  spot,  the  Mantis  flies,  or  crawls  after  it, 
slowly,  like  a  cat. 

Observations  of  RoeseL — Roesel,  the  naturalist,  de- 
siring to  study  the  character  and  habits  of  this  curious 
creature,  put  some  of  the  eggs  into  a  glass  case  until 
they  hatched.  The  young  ones,  immediately  dis- 
played the  most  savage  disposition  towards  each  other, 
but  Roesel  supplying  them  with  flies,  which  they  tore 
in  pieces  and  devoured  with  avidity,  he  in  this  way 
saved  some  of  his  brood  for  a  time.  But  notwithstand- 
ing he  supplied  them  well  with  insects,  they  continued 
to  devour  each  other  apparently  through  wantonness. 
Despairing  at  last  of  rearing  any  of  them  to  the  winged 
state,  he  seperated  them  into  small  companies,  under 


MANTIS. 


61 


different  glasses  hoping  in  this  way  to  render  them 
more  pacific.  But  still  the  strongest  in  each  little  com- 
munity, with  the  same  savage  disposition  as  before,  tore 
in  pieces  the  weaker. 

Finally,  he  put  a  pair  of  these  insects,  full  grown, 
into  a  glass  case,  and  having  taken  the  precaution  of 
first  supplying  them  with  food,  watched  their  actions. 
But  no  sooner  did  they  espy  each  other,  than  they  stood 
stiff  and  motionless,  each  eyeing  the  other  with  an  air 
of  the  sternest  defiance.  In  this  posture  did  they 
remain  for  many  minutes,  when  the  whole  frame  of  each 
became  violently  agitated ;  their  necks  were  elevated, 
their  wings  expanded,  and  in  this  state  they  rushed 
towards  each  other  with  the  utmost  fury,  and  hewed 
away  with  their  sharp  sabre-like  fore  feet,  like,  says 
Roesel,  a  couple  of  infuriated  Hussars. 

Barrow,  the  traveller,  states  that  the  Chinese  keep 
these  insects  in  separate  bamboo  canes,  for  the  purpose 
of  seeing  them  fight,  as  other  people  do  game  cocks ; 
and  that  in  the  summer  months,  scarcely  a  boy  is  seen 
in  the  streets,  without  a  cage  of  these  ferocious  warriors. 
A  practice  as  barbarous  with  respect  to  these  animals, 
as  it  is  humiliating  to  human  beings. 

Follicle  of  the  Mantis.  The  case,  or  sort  of  follicle, 
which  the  Mantis  constructs  to  contain  her  eggs  is  not 
Fig.  42.  ^-  the  least  curious  thing  belong- 
ing to  this  famous  insect.  This 
case  is  about  two  inches  long, 
of  a  yellow  color,  of  a  texture 
like  parchment,  and  curiously 
reticulated,  or  waved  on  the 
outside.  The  shape  is  that  of 
a  double  cone  united  at  their 
bases.  It  is  fixed  to  the  stalk 
of  some  plant,  as  seen  by  Fig. 
42. 

Along  one  side  there  is  a 
kind  of  suture  through  which 
the  young  escape  as  they  are 
hatched,  the  figure  showing 
some  of  them  in  this  act 


62  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

Fig.  43.  The  eggs  are  very  numerous,  and  are 

arranged  in  rows  as  seen  by  fig.  43,  which 
is  a  transverse  section  of  42.  One  of 
these  follicles  being  sent  to  Ro3sel,  he  ob- 
served that  a  double  row  of  egg-like  bo- 
dies sprouted  up  in  close  contact  with 
each  other  in  a  furrow,  which  divides  the  egg  case  longi- 
tudinally ;  these  little  eminences  soon  became  animated, 
for  out  of  them  he  perceived  the  little  Mantes  struggling  to 
escape.  As  soon  as  one  had  succeeded  in  freeing  itself 
from  the  egg,  it  ran  off  with  the  agility  of  an  ant,  which 
it  resembled  in  form  and  nimbleness. 

MUSQUETO. 

The  general  appearance  and  habits  of  the  Musqueto 
are  too  well  known  to  need  description.  It  belongs  to 
the  order  Diptera.  that  is,  double  winged,  these  tribes 
having  only  two  wings,  of  which,  the  common  house-fly 
is  another  example. 

The  Gnat  and  Musqueto  belong  to  the  same  species, 
the  latter  being  only  a  large  variety  of  the  former.  The 
larvae  of  these  insects  in  the  warm  season,  are  common 
in  all  stagnant  pools,  and  ditches.  Even  a  small  vessel 
of  water,  if  allowed  to  stand  still,  will  soon  exhibit  these 
little  beings,  diving  and  swimming  about  in  all  directions, 
generally  with  their  head  downwards.  They  are,  how- 
ever, obliged  often  to  rise  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  being 
furnished  with  a  small  cylindrical  tube  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

Changes  of  the  Musqueto  in  the  water. — The  Mus- 
Fig.  44.  queto  undergoes  several  metamorphoses 
before  it  leaves  the  water.  The  larva,  at 
first  is  composed  of  nine  segments,  each  of 
which  is  furnished  with  a  number  of  fine 
cilia  on  both  sides,  as  shown  by  Fig.  44, 
which  is  a  magnified  view  of  the  insect. 

After  having  thrice  changed  its  skin,  as 
it  increases  in  size,  it  appears  in  a  sort  of  len- 
ticular, or  bean-like  form,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
45.  In  this  state,  it  is  still  capable  of  mo- 
ving briskly  through  the  water,  in  the  manner 


MUSQUETO.  63 

Fig.  45.  Fig.  46.       Of  the  lobster,  that  is,  by 

alte  mat e ly  contracting  and 
expanding  the  body,  and 
striking  the  fluid  with  its 
fins  and  tail,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  46. 

In  this  stage  of  its  progress,  it  takes  no  food,  hav- 
ing neither  mouth  nor  organs  bf  digestion  ;  but  a 
plentiful  supply  of  air  seems  to  be  indispensable,  and 
hence  it  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  only 
descends  when  disturbed.  In  every  stagnant  pool, 
thousands  of  them  may  be  seen,  at  the  proper  season,  in 
this  state  of  repose.  Their  respiratory  organs  are  two 
ear-like  processes  shown  by  the  adjoining  figures,  and 
these  are  kept  above  the  surface  of  the  water  until 
another  change  is  about  to  ensue. 

Musqueto  leaving  the  water. — When  the  Musqueto  is 
about  to  emerge,  and  to  take  the  station  and  form  of  a 
perfect  being,  it  stretches  out  its  body  at  full  length  on 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  then  by  some  secret 
mechanism,  puffs  up  its  skin,  so  as  to  split  it  open  at  the 
head.  As  soon  as  this  fissure  is  sufficiently  large  for  the 
purpose,  the  insect,  in  perfect  form,  appears.  And, 
now  the  condition  of  the  little  adventurer  is  critical,  and 
perilous  in  the  extreme,  for,  from  being  an  aquatic,  it 
is  suddenly  transformed  into  an  air-breather ;  and  after 
having  spent  all  his  past  life  as  a  sailor,  he  is  in  a  twink- 
ling turned  landsman,  perhaps  far  from  the  shore,  and 
having  no  other  boat  but  his  own  skin,  with  neither  oar 
nor  sail,  for  he  has  no  use  of  either  leg  or  wing.  If  at 
this  juncture  a  little  breeze  comes  on,  it  proves  a  most 
dreadful  hurricane  to  the  poor  animal,  for  if  a  drop  of 
Fig.  47  water  gets  into  the  case,  which  has 

now  become  a  canoe,  it  inevitably 
sinks  and  carries  the  insect  down 
with  it.     This  hazardous  situation  is 
shown  by  Fig.  47,  which  exhibits  a 
,  magnified  picture  of  the  Musqueto 
1  just  taking  its  departure  into  its  new 
"element.     Reaumur,  who  saw  eve- 
ry thing  which  nature  exhibits  with  respect  to  this  insect, 


64  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

speaks  of  the  peril  of  this  moment  in  the  following  lan- 
guage :  "  When  the  observer  perceives  how  much  the 
prow  of  the  little  bark  sinks,  and  how  near  its  sides  are 
to  the  water,  he  forgets  for  the  moment,  that  the  gnat  is 
an  insect,  which  at  any  other  time  he  would  destroy ; 
nay,  he  becomes  anxious  for  its  fate,  and  the  more  so  if 
the  slightest  breeze  plays  on  the  surface  of  the  water : 
the  least  agitation  of  the  air  being  sufficient  to  waft  the 
creature  with  swiftness  from  place  to  place,  and  to  make 
it  spin  round  and  round.  Its  body,  folded  in  its  wings, 
bears  a  greater  proportion  to  the  little  skiff,  than  the  lar- 
gest mass  of  sail  to  a  ship  :  it  is  impossible  not  to  dread 
lest  the  insect  should  be  wrecked  ;  once  laid  on  its  side, 
on  the  water,  there  is  no  escape.  Generally,  however, 
all  terminates  favorably,  and  the  danger  is  over  in  a  min- 
ute." 


STRUCTURE    OF    INSECTS. 

Having  detailed  the  steps  by  which  nature  produces 
a  perfect  Insect  from  the  egg,  and  shown  also  how  these 
natural  processes  vary  in  several  different  orders  and 
species,  it  is  now  proper  to  say  something  of  the  struc- 
ture of  these  beings,  in  order  to  show  by  what  means 
they  perform  the  functions  of  life. 

Insects,  as  we  have  seen,  and  as  common  observa- 
tion evinces,  vary  exceedingly  in  their  forms,  habits  and 
dispositions,  and  they  must  consequently  vary  in  respect 
to  their  structure,  since  each  species  must  be  furnished 
with  organs,  and  instruments  by  which  it  is  precisely 
adapted  to  the  situation  and  condition  in  which  it  is 
placed.  But  although  there  is  so  much  variety  in  their 
appearance,  all  Insects  consist  of  only  three  principal 
parts,  viz,  the  head,  trunk  and  abdomen. 

In  order  to  illustrate  this  subject,  we  will  take  one  of 
the  Beetle  tribe,  and  divide  it  into  sections,  and  by  means 
of  plans  show  the  names  and  uses  of  the  several  parts. 
The  Insect  here  represented,  is  the  Carabus  sycophantat 

What  are  the  principal  sections  of  an  insect  1 


STRUCTURE    OF   INSECTS. 


65 


Fig.  48,  and  may  stand  as  a  type  of  all  the  other  Beetles, 
Fig.  48.  since  they  do  not  differ  in 

their  structures.  This  spe- 
cimen is  of  the  natural 
size,  but  the  sections  are 
somewhat  magnified,  that 
the  smaller  parts  may  be 
more  distinctly  seen. 

The  head  c,  Fig.  49, 
"contains  the  principal  en- 
largement of  the  nervous 
system,  or  the  brain,  the 
scull  or  cranium  being  us- 
ually the  hardest  part  of 
the  insect.  To  the  head 
are  attached  the  antennae, 
and  instruments  of  masti- 
cation. The  latter  are  much  more  complicated  in  Insects 
than  in  larger  animals.  Those  which  divide  their  food, 
have  a  double  set  of  jaws,  called  mandibles  and  maxilla, 
besides  which,  there  are  four  other  moveable  pieces 
called  palpi,  and  labial  palpi.  The  mandibles  or  upper 
jaws,  m,  cut  the  food ;  the  lower,  or  proper  jaws,  j, 
masticate  it;  the  palpi, p,  and  the  labial  palpi,  /,  appear 
to  be  instruments  of  sense  by  which  the  insect  judges  of 
the  quality  of  its  food.  The  motions  of  all  these  parts 
are  horizontal,  and  not  vertical  as  with  us,  and  other  an- 
imals having  incumbent  maxilla?.  To  obtain  an  idea  of 
the  motions  and  uses  of  these  parts,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  watch  an  insect  for  a  few  moments  while  feeding. 
Fig.  49. 


The  trunk,  or  thorax  is  composed  of  three  parts,  con- 


What  are  the  jaws  of  insects  ca-led  ?  What  other  pieces  belong  to  the 
mouths  of  insects  1  What  are  the  uses  of  the  mandibles  and  proper 
jaws  7  What  are  the  uses  of  the  palpi  1 

6* 


66  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

sisting  of  the   three    segments,  figures  50,  51   and  52. 
The  first  is  called  the  Prothorax,  Fig.  50,  to  which  is 

Fig.  50. 


connected  the  first  pair  of  legs.     The  second,  Fig.  51 , 

is  called  the  Mesothorax,  and  gives  origin  to  the  second 

Fig.  51. 


pair  of  legs  and  the  first  pair  of  wings,  or  the  elytra  c. 

The  third   section  is  the  Metathorax,  Fig.  52.     This 
part  sustains  the  third  pair  of  legs  and  the  second  pair 


Fig.  52. 


of  wings,  or  the  wings  proper  10.     These  two  last  seg- 


How  many  sections  is  the  trunk  of  an  insect  composed  of?  On  what 
principle  are  the  limbs  of  insects  named  7  What  are  the  names  of  th« 
different  parts  of  one  of  these  limbs,  and  what  are  their  relative  situa- 
tions 7 


STRUCTURE    OF    INSECTS.  67 

ments  are  closely  united,  but  the  natural  distinction  be- 
tween them  is  marked  by  a  transverse  line. 

The  third  principal  division  is  the  abdomen,  Fig.  53. 
Fig.  53.  This,  in  the  instance  before  us,  is  com- 

posed of  six  complete,  and  three  im- 
perfect segments,  but  these  segments 
vary  in  number  in  different  insects 
from  three  or  four,  to  twelve  or  more. 
These  segments  all  have  a  ligamentous 
connection  with  each  other,  allowing 
free  motion  in  all  directions. 

The  limbs  of  Insects,  are  named 
from  their  supposed  analogy  to  cor- 
responding parts  in  the  higher  order  of  animals.  Thus  the 
haunch,  h,  corresponds  to  the  hip  bone  of  quadrupeds  ; 
the  trochanter,  t,  to  the  head  of  the  thigh  bone ;  the 
femur,  /,  to  the  thigh  bone  itself ;  the  tibia,  s,  to  the 
bones  of  the  leg ;  and  the  tarsus,  r,  to  those  of  the  foot. 
It  is  perhaps  unnecessary  in  a  work  like  the  present, 
to  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  peculiar  mechanism, 
motions  and  uses  of  each  of  these  parts.  The  limbs  of 
Insects  down  to  the  feet,  may  be  considered  as  acting  in 
a  manner  analagous  to  our  own.  The  feet  have  pecu- 
liarities to  which  there  is  no  analogy  in  other  animals, 
and  which  therefore  must  receive  further  notice. 

The  legs  of  most  Insects  diverge,  so  as  to  reach  con- 
siderably beyond  their  bodies  on  each  side,  thus  giving 
them  a  firmer  support,  by  throwing  the  centre  of  grav- 
ity far  within  the  base.  When  the  legs  are  very  long, 
the  Insect  therefore,  appears  rather  suspended,  than  sup- 
ported by  them,  contrary  to  what  obtains  in  quadrupeds 
and  man,  where  the  feet  are  immediately  below  the 
points  where  the  legs  are  connected  with  the  body. 

In  Insects,  the  last  joint  of  the  tarsus  is  generally  ter- 
minated by  a  claw,  sometimes  single,  and  sometimes 
double,  and  by  which  the  foot  is  fastened  in  walking  to 
any  surface  which  is  in  the  least  degree  rough,  or  un- 
equal. By  these  hooks  insects  also  suspend  themselves 
on  perpendicular  surfaces,  or  with  their  backs  down- 
wards, this  being  from  the  mechanism  of  these  parts,  the 

By  what  means  do  insects  walk  on  rough  surfaces  ? 


68  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

most  easy  position  they  can  take.  The  Beetle  tribe, 
and  the  Grass-hoppers,  are  furnished  with  this  appara- 
tus. They  cannot  climb  up  smooth  surfaces,  as  a  polish- 
ed door,  or  a  pane  of  glass,  their  hooks  being  useless,, 
without  some  degree  of  roughness. 

Some  Insects  walk  by  Atmospheric  pressure. — Other 
Insects  are  furnished  with  a  curious,  and  somewhat  com- 
plicated apparatus,  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  walk 
not  only  upon  rough,  but  also  upon  the  smoothest  sur- 
faces, even  with  their  backs  downwards.  It  is  well 
known,  that  the  common  house  fly,  (Musca  domestica,) 
prefers  this  position  to  all  others,  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
pose. Hence  we  may  infer,  that  this  is  the  easiest  po- 
sition the  Insect  can  take,  and  therefore  the  one  which 
requires  the  least  muscular  exertion. 

There  has  been  much  diversity  of  opinion  among 
naturalists,  by  what  means,  these  Insects  are  able 
thus  to  suspend  themselves  on  surfaces  entirely  smooth, 
with  so  much  ease  as  to  prefer  this  position  for  sleep- 
ing. Dr.  Derham  in  his  Physico-Theology,  speaking  on 
this  subject,  says,  "  that  divers  flies  and  other  Insects, 
besides  their  sharp  hooked  nails,  have  also  skinny  palms 
to  their  feet,  to  enable  them  to  stick  on  glass  and  other 
smooth  bodies  by  means  of  the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere, after  the  manner  I  have  seen  boys  carry  heavy 
stones  with  only  a  wet  piece  of  leather  clapped  on  the 
top  of  the  stone."  This  theory  acquired  additional 
weight,  or  rather  was  confirmed  in  the  opinions  of  most 
entomologists  by  the  elaborate  and  celebrated  experi- 
ments of  Sir  Everard  Home,  in  which  he  was  assisted 
by  the  microscopic  observations,  and  drawings  of  M. 
Bauer. 

Mr.  Roget,  in  his  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology, 
one  of  the  most  recently  published  "  Bridgwater  Trea- 
tises," has  given  the  following  description  of  this  curious 
mechanism. 

Mechanism  of  the  Foot  of  the  house  Fly. — In  the 
house  Fly,  that  part  of  the  last  joint  of  the  tarsus,  which 

Why  cannot  they  walk  on  smooth  surfaces  7 


STRUCTURE    OF    INSECTS.  W 

is   immediately  under   the  root  of  the  claw,  has  two 
suckers  appended  to  it  by  a  narrow,  funnel-shaped  neck, 
Fig.  54.  moveable  by  muscles  in  all  direc- 

tions. These  suckers  are  shown  in 
Fig.  54,  which  represents  the  under 
side  of  the  foot  of  the  blue  bottle 
Fly,  (Musca  vo??iitoria,)  with  the 
suckers  expanded.  The  sucking 
part  of  the  apparatus  consists  of  a 
membrane  capable  of  contraction, 
and  extension,  and  the  edges  of 
which  are  serrated,  so  as  to  fit  them 
for  the  closest  application  to  any  kind  of  surface.  In 
the  Horse  Fly  each  foot  is  furnished  with  three  suckers. 

Mechanism  in  the  Saw  Fly. — In  the  yellow  Saw  Fly, 
(Cimbex  lutea,)  there  are  four  suckers,  of  which  one  is 
placed  upon  the  under  surface  of  each  of  the  first  joints 


of  the  toes,  Fig.  55.     All  the  feet  of  this  insect  are  thus 
provided.     Both  of  these  figures  are  highly  magnified. 

The  mode  in  which  these  suckers  operate  may  be 
distinctly  seen,  by  observing  with  a  magnifying  glass, 
the  actions  of  a  large  blue  bottle  Fly  in  the  inside  of  a 
glass  tumbler.  A  Fly,  by  the  application  of  this  appa- 
ratus will  remain  suspended  from  the  ceiling  with  his 
back  downwards,  for  any  length  of  time,  without  the 
least  exertion ;  for  the  weight  of  the  body  pulling 
against  the  suckers,  serves  to  make  them  adhere  strong- 
er, for  the  same  reason  that  a  boy's  leather  sucker  ad- 
heres more  forcibly  in  lifting  a  large  stone,  than  a  small 
one.  For  this  reason  it  is,  that  house  Flies  prefer  the 
ceiling  to  an  upper  surface,  as  a  place  of  rest. 

In  what  manner  is  it  said  the  house  fly  adheres  to  the  under  surfaces 
of  smooth  bodies  1 


70 


MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 


Doubts  concerning  this  mechanism. — Notwithstanding 
it  would  thus  appear,  that  there  could  be  no  doubt  with 
respect  to  the  manner  in  which  Flies  are  enabled  to  ad- 
here to  smooth  surfaces,  yet  some  entomologists  still 
doubt  whether  the  feet  of  these  Insects  really  contain 
any  organs  which  adhere  by  suction.  If  Flies  adhere 
by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  then,  if  the  atmos- 
phere be  removed,  it  is  said,  they  would  be  unable  to 
walk  on  a  smooth  perpendicular  surface.  To  demon- 
strate this,  house  Flies  were  put  into  the  glass  receiver 
of  an  air-pump,  and  the  air  exhausted,  when  it  is  said, 
"  it  was  demonstrated  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  several 
intelligent  gentlemen  present,  that  the  house  Fly,  while 
it  retains  its  vital  powers  unimpaired,  can,  not  only  trav- 
erse the  upright  sides,  but  even  the  interior  of  the  dome 
of  an  exhausted  receiver,  and  that  the  cause  of  its  re- 
laxing its  hold,  and  ultimately  falling  from  the  station  it 
occupied,  was  a  diminution  of  muscular  force,  attributa- 
ble to  impeded  respiration."  In  consequence  of  such 
experiments,  it  has  been  proposed  to  account  for  the 
phenomena  observed,  by  the  secretion  of  an  adhesive 
matter  with  which  the  foot  of  the  Fly,  or  the  hairs  on  it 
are  embued.  The  advocates  for  this  mode  say,  that 
they  have  facts  on  this  subject,  which  are  quite  inexpli- 
cable except  on  the  supposition  that  an  adhesive  secretion 
is  emitted  by  the  instruments  employed  in  climbing. 
We  are  however,  rather  inclined  to  the  belief  that  these 
Insects  adhere  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  as 
was  so  clearly  shown  by  the  observations  of  Sir  E. 
Home. 


INGENUITY    OF    INSECTS. 

There  are  some  traits  in  the  characters  and  habits  of 
certain  Insects,  which  appear  so  much  like  the  cunning, 
ingenuity  and  contrivance  of  the  higher  order  of  ani- 
mals, that  we  cannot  see  why  they  have  not  an  equal 

What  experiment  seems  to  make  it  doubtful  whether  flies  adhere  by 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  1  ^yhat  is  the  conclusion  of  the  author 
with  respect  to  the  means  by  which  flies  adhere  to  smooth  surfaces  1 
What  is  meant  by  the  ingenuity  of  insects  7 


INGENUITY    OP   INSECTS.  71 

claim  to  those  attributes.  We  do  not  here  allude  to  that 
instinctive  endowment,  which  guides  the  different  spe- 
cies to  deposite  their  eggs  in  places  where  the  young 
when  hatched,  perhaps  many  months  afterwards,  will 
immediately  find  the  aliment  best  adapted  to  their  con- 
dition ;  nor  to  that  apparent  foreknowledge  with  re- 
spect to  time,  by  which  there  is  a  precise  adaptation  in 
the  state  of  the  plant  to  the  want  of  the  young  larva  ; 
for  these  are  mysteries  of  which  we  can  say  nothing, 
except  that  they  are  the  means  which  the  Creator  has 
taken  to  perpetuate  his  works. 

By  the  ingenuity  of  Insects,  we  mean  that  endowment 
by  which  they  plan  and  execute,  various  structures  for 
convenience,  or  comfort,  and  which  are  varied  accord- 
ing to  circumstances  ;  and  also  the  devices  which  they 
employ  for  the  purposes  of  entrapping,  or  escaping  each 
other. 

Ingenuity  of  Spiders. — Thus  one  species  of  Spider 
constructs  her  net  for  catching  game,  in  a  place  where 
he  thinks  such  flies  as  best  suit  her  appetite  are  most 
likely  to  come ;  and  being  sensible  that  her  presence  is 
frightful  to  those  insects  which  she  would  make  her  vic- 
tims, she  takes  the  precaution  to  conceal  herself  with  far 
more  cunning  than  the  cat,  or  even  the  tiger.     The  Spi- 
der having  finished  its  game  net,  next  goes  to  work  to 
make  a  place  of  ambush,  where  it  can  repose  in  com- 
fort, until  some  poor  fly  not  seeing  the  trap,  gets  en- 
tangled in  it.     The  place  of  ambush  is  some  sly  crevice 
at  a  distance  from  the  net.     In  this  it  constructs  a  tube 
of  silk,  the  entrance  of  which  is  no  larger  than  abso- 
lutely necessary,  and  is  often  entirely  concealed  from 
external  view.     This   is  constructed  somewhat  like  a 
sack  with  a  small  mouth,  the  interior  being  enlarged,  so 
that  the  inmate  can  stretch  out  its  limbs,  and  turn  around 
with  facility.     But  that  the  cunning  Insect  may  not  be 
under   the  necessity  of  watching  continually   at   the 
mouth  of  its  ambuscade,  it   carries  a  cord  from  some 
convenient  part  of  it  to  the   net,  and  having  carefully 
fastened  both  ends,  retires  to  wait  the  result  of  its  craf- 
tiness.    The  least  motion  of  the  game  net,  instantly 
brings  the  owner  to  the  mouth  of  its  ambuscade,  the 


72  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

news  being  conveyed  by  the  cord  stretched  between 
them.  If  it  proves  to  be  some  luckless  fly,  which  has 
caused  the  alarm,  the  voracious  spider  mounts  the  cord, 
and  in  another  instant,  may  be  seen  tying  the  legs,  and 
wings  of  its  victim,  with  the  utmost  eagerness  and  art, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  escape.  Having  thus 
secured  its  prey,  it  sucks  its  blood  at  leisure,  and  then 
retires  and  waits  for  another  haul. 

If  craftiness,  ingenuity  and  contrivance  are  not  ex- 
hibited in  such  proceedings  as  these,  we  know  not  where 
to  find  them  in  the  animal  kingdom.  Any  one  by 
watching  a  common  house  Spider,  may  convince  him- 
self of  the  truth  of  our  statement. 

The  ingenuity  with  which  spiders  contrive  to  escape 
when  surrounded  by  water,  is  sometimes  highly  curious 
and  interesting.  Mr.  Kirby  placed  a  large  field  spider 
upon  a  stick  about  a  foot  long  set  in  a  vessel  of  water. 
After  fastening  its  thread,  at  the  top  of  the  stick,  it  crept 
down  the  side  until  it  came  to  the  water,  then  immedi- 
ately swinging  from  the  stick  which  was  slightly  bent, 
it  climbed  again  to  the  top.  This  it  repeated  many 
times,  still  finding  its  retreat  cut  off,  and  no  means  of 
escaping  in  that  manner.  At  length  it  let  itself  down 
from  the  top  of  the  stick,  not  by  a  single  thread,  but  by 
two,  each  distant  from  the  other  about  the  twelfth  of  an 
inch,  guided  as  usual  by  one  of  its  hind  feet,  one  of  the 
threads  being  apparently  smaller  than  the  other.  When 
it  had  suffered  itself  to  descend  nearly  to  the  surface  of 
the  water,  it  stopped  short,  and  by  some  means  not 
apparent,  broke  off  close  to  the  spinners,  the  smallest 
thread,  which  still  adhering  to  the  top  of  the  stick,  float- 
ed in  the  air,  and  was  so  light  as  to  be  moved  by  the 
slightest  breath.  This  thread  catching  on  an  object  at  a 
little  distance,  the  spider  employed  it  as  a  bridge  to 
make  its  escape. 

But  the  ingenuity  and  resources  of  this  tribe  of  in- 
sects are  so  well  known,  that  we  will  not  multiply  more 
instances. 

/ 

Ingenuity  of  the  Caddis  worm. — A  little  insect,  or 
worm,  common  in  fresh  water  brooks,  called  the  Caddis 
worm,  and  well  known  to  anglers,  builds  for  itself  a 


INGENUITY    OP    INSECTS.  73 

house,  or  tube,  in  which  it  lives,  of  most  singular,  and 
curious  workmanship. 

pio.  56  The  body  of  this  insect  is 

composed  of  nine  sections,  the 
sides  of  which  are  fringed 
with  cilia,  or  paddles.  The 
legs  are  six,  all  situated  near 
the  head,  as  shown  by  Fig.  56, 
which  represents  the  creature  naked,  or  without  its 
case. 

It  may  be  observed  that  this  worm,  though  it  is  en- 
tirely aquatic,  is  still  not  well  adapted  to  swimming.  Its 
six  legs  all  close  together  are  specifically  heavier  than 
water,  and  its  long  body  beset  only  with  a  few  hairs, 
would  appear  better  fitted  to  crawl  than  to  swim.  But 
apparently  as  a  compensation  for  these  defects,  the 
Great  Author  of  nature  has  endowed  it  with  a  degree 
of  instinctive  knowledge,  by  means  of  which,  it  is  able 
to  avoid  the  evils  which  would  otherwise  arise  from  its 
construction. 

The  Caddis  worm  constructs  for  itself  a  tube  or  habi- 
tation, by  means  of  such  materials  as  it  can  most  easily 
Fis-  51.  obtain,  and  which  are  fitted  to  its  purpose. 
Leaves,  straws,  bits  of  wood,  and  shells  are 
employed  according  to  the  taste,  or  conve- 
nience  of  the  builder.  Fig.  57,  shows  one 
of  these  cases  made  of  a  few  pieces  of 
leaves,  so  arranged  as  somewhat  to  imitate 
a  Spanish  mantle,  the  head  and  feet  of  the 
insect  protruding  at  the  upper  end.  This, 
like  all  the  other  forms  which  it  constructs  is  lined 
with  a  kind  of  silk  on  the  inside,  and  it  is  by  means  of 
the  same  substance  that  the  different  pieces  of  which 
these  curious  habitations  are  made  and  fastened  together. 
Fig.  58.  By  Fig.  58  is  shown  the  worm  cov- 

ered by  a  couple  of  pieces  of  semi- 
cylindrical,  hollow  bark,  cemented 
together.  Happening  to  find  two 
such  pieces-  suitable  for  the  purpose, 
it  has  been  saved  the  labor  of  joining 
more,  as  most  of  its  brethren  have  done. 


74  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

Fig.  59.  Fig.  59    representsts    another  of 

these  geniuses  enveloped  in  a  riband, 

^^M^--O=/~^B^  mac^e  °f  Pieces  °f  leaves  joined  to- 
^^BiimtfiMSp>  gether,  and  rolled  on  like  a  bandage, 
the  folds  being  laid  with  as  much 
regard  to  symmetry  and  skill,  as  the  neatest  surgeon 
displays  in  dressing  a  limb. 

Sometimes  these  mantles  are  constructed  with  small 
Fig.  60.  shells  cemented  together,  as  seen  by 

Fig.  60.    These  shells  are  commonly 
empty,  but  it  seems  the  builder  does 
not  always  wait  for  this,  sometimes 
k    employing  living  snails,  when  their 
sizes  happen  to  suit  his  wants. 

It  appears  that  this  insect,  when  out  of  its  case,  can 
do  little  more  than  crawl  along  the  bottom  of  the  brook, 
where  it  lives.  But  when  clothed  in  the  manner  rep- 
resented, it  floats  along  near  the  surface,  or  sinks  towards 
the  bottom  at  pleasure  ;  generally  retaining  the  perpen- 
dicular position,  but  changing  it  to  the  horizontal,  or 
turning  the  head  downwards,  at  will.  These  different 
positions,  as  well  as  some  motion  in  any  direction,  the 
insect  gains  by  using  its  feet  as  paddles,  these  parts  being 
always  out  of  the  case  and  free. 

But  the  most  wonderful  point  in  this  history  is  the 
judgment  involved  in  the  selection  of  materials,  which 
when  united  to  the  body  of  the  insect  will  exactly  coun- 
terpoise the  whole,  so  that  it  neither  rises  to  the  surface, 
nor  sinks  to  the  bottom,  but  may  be  made  to  do  either 
by  the  small  degree  of  force  exerted  by  the  feet. 

A  vast  number  of  instances  might  be  selected  of  the 
ingenuity,  craft,  and  seeming  discretion  of  the  Insect 
tribes,  especially  of  the  bee,  ant,  spider,  and  wasp,  but 
for  these,  we  must  refer  the  reader. to  works  on  Ento- 
mology. 


What  is  said  to  bo  the  most  wonderful  point  in  the  history  of  th« 
caddis  worm  ? 


PART  II. 

VERTEBRATED  ANIMALS. 


VERTEBRA,  signifies  "back  bone,"  and  the  animals 
which  come  next  to  the  Insects  in  the  scale  of  organi- 
zation, are  called  Vertebrated,  that  is,  they  have  back 
bones. 

The  animals  we  have  heretofore  examined  consist  of 
those  which  have  no  hard  parts  as  the  Polypi,  or  those 
covered  with  shells  as  the  Mollusca,  or  with  a  crust  as 
the  Crustacea,  or  such  as  pass  from  the  soft,  to  a  more 
consistent  state  as  the  Jnsecta. 

None  of  these  animals  possess  an  internal  solid  frame- 
work to  support,  and  connect  the  softer  parts,  this  kind 
of  structure  being  reserved  for  animals  of  the  higher 
orders  and  more  complex  organizations. 

"  If,"  says  Roget,  "  it  be  pleasing  to  trace  the  foot- 
steps of  nature  in  constructions  so  infinitely  varied  as 
those  of  the  lower  animals,  and  to  follow  the  gradations 
of  ascent  from  the  Zoophyte  to  the  winged  insect,  which 
exhibits  the  greatest  perfection  compatible  with  the 
restricted  dimensions  of  that  class  of  beings,  still  more 
interesting  must  be  the  study  of  those  more  elaborate 
efforts  of  creative  power,  which  are  displayed  on  a 
wider  field  in  the  higher  orders  of  the  animal  kingdom. 
In  the  various  tribes  of  beings  which  are  now  to  come 
before  us,  we  find  nature  proceeding  to  display  more 

What  are  vertebrated  animals  7  How  are  the  vertebrated  animal* 
•specially  distinguished  from  those  we  have  already  examined? 


76  VERTEBRATED   ANIMALS. 

refined  developements  in  her  system  of  organization ; 
resorting  to  new  models  of  structure  on  a  scale  of 
greater  magnitude  than  before  ;  devising  new  plans  of 
economy,  calculated  for  more  extended  periods  of  du- 
ration ;  and  adopting  new  arrangements  of  organs, 
fitted  for  the  exercise  of  a  higher  order  of  faculties. 

The  result  of  these  more  elaborate  constructions  is 
seen  in  the  vast  series  of  Vertebrated  Animals,  which 
comprises  a  well-marked  division  in  Zoology,  compre- 
hending all  the  larger  species  that  exist  on  the  globe,  in 
whatever  climate  or  element,  they  may  be  found  ;  and 
including  man  himself,  placed,  as  he  unquestionably 
is,  at  the  summit  of  the  scale,  the  undisputed  Lord  of 
the  creation." 

"  A  remarkable  affinity  of  structure  prevails  through- 
out the  whole  of  this  extensive  assemblage  of  beings, 
Whatever  may  be  the  size,  or  external  form  of  these 
animals,  whatever  the  activity,  or  sluggishness  of  their 
movements,  whether  inhabitants  of  the  land  or  water, 
or  the  air,  a  striking  similitude  may  be  traced  in  the  dis- 
position of  their  vital  organs,  and  in  the  construction  of 
their  solid  frame  works  or  skeletons,  which  sustains  and 
protects  their  fabric.  The  Quadruped,  the  Bird,  the 
Tortoise,  the  Serpent,  the  Fish,  however  they  may  differ 
in  subordinate  details  of  organization,  yet  are  constructed 
upon  one  uniform  principle,  and  appear  like  varied  copies 
from  the  same  original  model.  In  no  instance  do  they 
present  structures,  which  are  altogether  isolated,  or  can 
be  regarded  as  the  results  of  separate  and  independent 
formations." 

Animals  resist  both  heat  and  cold. — But  although  there 
is  a  general  analogy  with  respect  to  the  skeletons  of  all  ver- 
tebrated  animals,  and  a  general  similitude  in  the  disposi- 
tion and  construction  of  their  vital  parts,  still  there  is  a  stri- 
king and  wonderful  difference  in  the  effects  produced  by 
the  action  of  these  parts,  especially  vital  action,  on  the 
animal,  and  particularly  on  its  temperature  ;  for  while  the 

What  is  said  concerning  the  affinity  of  structure,  which  exists  among 
all  animals  with  back  bones  1  What  is  said  of  the  different  effects  of 
vital  action  on  different  vertebrated  animals  ? 


VERTEBRATED    ANIMALS.  77 

fishes,  properly  so  called,  partake  the  temperature  of 
the  water  in  which  they  live,  even  to  the  point  of  free- 
zing ;  air  breathing  animals  have  the  power  of  resisting 
both  heat  and  cold,  and  of  preserving  nearly  the  same 
temperature,  whatever  that  may  be  in  which  they  are 
placed. 

It  is  perhaps  true,  that  to  a  certain  degree,  all  animals, 
and  even  trees,  resist  both  heat  and  cold  so  long  as  the 
vital  principle  remains  active.  But  in  the  lower  orders 
of  animals,  this  power  is  exceedingly  feeble  when  com- 
pared with  that,  which  endows  Quadrupeds  and  Man. 

Thus  eels  become  as  cold  to  the  touch  as  the  ice  in 
which  they  may  be  preserved,  and  yet  the  vital  princi- 
ple remains,  since  these  creatures  may  be  thus  kept  in 
a  torpid  state,  probably  for  any  length  of  time,  and  then 
again  revived  to  life  and  activity.  It  is  well  known 
also,  that  the  gold  fish  may  be  frozen  with  the  water  in 
its  vase,  and  yet  by  a  slow  application  of  heat,  become 
as  lively  as  ever,  in  the  course  of  half  an  hour.  In  these 
cases,  and  many  others  which  will  be  mentioned  hereaf- 
ter, life  is  suspended,  but  its  principle  yet  remains,  and 
although  such  animals  do  not  preserve  their  temperature 
like  those  of  the  higher  orders,  they  are  still  endowed 
with  a  much  greater  tenacity  of  life,  for  with  a  few 
exceptions,  when  a  warm  blooded  animal  becomes 
cold,  the  vital  principle  is  not  merely  suspended,  but  is 
extinct,  and  death  ensues. 

The  power  of  man,  and  also  of  quadrupeds  and 
birds,  to  resist  changes  of  temperature,  is  indeed  sur- 
prising. With  respect  to  the  power  of  animals  to 
resist  low  degrees  of  temperature,  every  one  who 
resides  in  a  cold  climate  has  seen  abundance  of  natural 
examples.  The  turkey,  for  instance,  will  sleep  comfort- 
ably, perched  on  a  high  tree,  entirely  exposed  to  the 
northern  blast,  when  the  thermometer  is  30  degrees 
below  zero.  Allowing  the  temperature  of  the  bird  to 
be  100  degrees,  which  is  not  above  the  truth,  then  there 

What  is  said  about  the  freezing  of  eels  and  fish  1  What  animals  have 
the  greatest  tenacity  of  life,  cold  or  warm  blooded  1  What  difference 
sometimes  exists  between  the  temperature  of  the  turkey  and  the  air  in 
which  he  is? 

7* 


78  VERTEBRATED   ANIMALS. 

is  a  difference  of  130  degrees,  between  that  of  the 
atmosphere  and  that  of  the  turkey.  But  the  Black-cap* 
titmouse,  a  little  bird  which  passes  its  winters  with  us 
is  a  much  more  extraordinary  instance  of  the  same 
kind,  on  account  of  its  diminutive  size.  This  bird  as  it 
flies,  does  not  probably  weigh  more  than  half  an  ounce, 
and  yet  small  as  it  is,  the  vital  action  with  which  it  is 
endowed,  is  sufficient  to  maintain  its  temperature,  130 
or  140  degrees,  above  that  in  which  it  is  placed,  and  this 
difference  so  far  from  inducing  torpor,  seems  from  the 
cheerful  and  lively  appearance  of  the  little  animal,  to  be 
a  temperature  most  agreeable  to  it. 

On  the  contrary,  it  is  found  by  accurate  experiments, 
that  the  animal  system  is  capable  of  resisting  degrees  of 
heat  in  a  much  greater  proportion  above  its  own  tem- 
perature, than  these  are  below. 

Origin  of  the  experiments  on  the  power  of  Man  to 
resist  heat. — A  circumstance  which  happened  in  France, 
in  the  year  1760,  first  led  philosophers  to  make  experi- 
ments on  the  power  of  the  human  system  to  resist  high 
temperatures.  Some  gentlemen  having  occasion  to  use 
a  public  oven  for  certain  experiments  on  the  day  in 
which  bread  had  been  baked  in  it,  and  wishing  to  ascer- 
tain its  temperature,  a  girl,  one  of  the  attendants  at  the 
bakery,  offered  to  go  in,  and  mark  the  height  of  the  mer- 
cury with  a  pencil.  The  girl  smiled  at  the  hesitation  of 
the  gentlemen  to  allow  her  to  do  so,  and  going  into  the 
oven,  marked  the  temperature  at  260°  of  Fahrenheit. 
Notwithstanding  the  anxiety  they  felt  for  this  young  sala- 
mander, she  declared  to  their  astonishment,  that  she  felt 
no  inconvenience  from  the  heat,  and  insisted  on  staying 
longer,  and  having  remained  ten  minutes,  the  thermom- 
eter then  was  found  to  stand  at  288°,  that  is,  76°  above 
the  heat  of  boiling  water,  and  190°  above  the  ordinary 
temperature  of  the  human  system,  which  is  98°. 

Experiments  of  Sir  Charles  Blagden  and  Dr.  For- 
dyce. — The  publication  of  these  facts  excited  general 


What  circumstance  first  led  philosophers  to  make  experiments  on  the 
power  of  the  human  system  to  resist  heat  1  How  much  higher  was  the 
temperature  of  the  oven  than  that  of  the  ordinary  human  system  ! 


VERTEBRATED    ANIMALS.  79 

attention,  and  several  philosophers  made  experiments 
on  their  own  persons  with  a  view  of  testing  and 
explaining  such  a  singular  phenomenon.  Of  these 
experiments,  probably  the  most  accurate  and  decisive, 
and  certainly  the  most  famous,  were  those  of  Sir  Charles 
Blagden  and  Dr.  Fordyce.  The  room  where  these  cele- 
brated experiments  were  made  was  heated  by  flues, 
there  being  neither  chimney  nor  any  other  aperture 
where  the  heat  might  escape. 

In  the  first  experiment,  Sir  Charles  went  in,  with 
wooden  shoes  on  his  feet,  the  heat  being  a  little  above 
that  of  boiling  water.  The  first  impression  is  described 
as  exceedingly  disagreeable,  but  in  a  few  minutes  all  this 
uneasiness  was  removed  by  the  breaking  forth  of  a  pro- 
fuse perspiration.  Having  staid  twelve  minutes,  he 
came  out  with  a  sense  of  fatigue,  but  nothing  more,  the 
thermometer  then  standing  at  220°. 

It  was  afterwards  found  that  the  temperature  of  260° 
could  be  endured  for  a  short  time,  without  much  diffi- 
culty. But  the  most  curious  part  of  these  experiments 
were  the  sensations  produced  by  touching  their  own 
persons  on  some  vital  part,  or  touching  each  other,  and 
also  objects  in  the  room.  Every  piece  of  metal  about 
their  persons,  as  their  watch  chains,  became  intolerably 
hot ;  small  quantities  of  water  placed  in  metallic  vessels, 
boiled  in  a  few  minutes.  Though  the  air  of  the  room 
was  260o,  it  could  be  taken  into  the  lungs  with  impunity, 
but  the  boiling  water  in  which  the  thermometer  indica- 
ted only  212°,  scalded  the  finger  as  usual.  Eggs  and 
beef-steak  suspended  in  wire  nets,  were  completely 
done  in  from  five  to  fifteen  minutes,  and  still  the  gentle- 
men were  able  to  remain  in  the  room.  But  notwith- 
standing dead  matter  became  heated  to  the  temperature 
of  the  air,  as  was  expected,  the  persons  of  the  gentle- 
men never  rose  higher  than  about  101°,  or  at  most  102°, 
as  indicated  by  the  thermometer,  with  the  bulb  placed 
on  the  tongue,  or  under  the  arm. 

The  hands  being  at  a  distance  from  the  vital  parts, 
were  heated  to  a  much  higher  degree,  so  that  when  the 


What  were  the  degrees  of  heat  to  which  Sir  C.  Blagden  and  Dr.  For- 
dyce  exposed  themselves  ? 


80  VERTEBRATED   ANIMALS. 

gentlemen  touched  any  part  near  the  seat  of  life,  as  the 
tongue  or  side,  it  felt  nearly  as  cold  as  a  piece  of  ice 
under  ordinary  circumstances.  Thus  though  these  per- 
sons were  in  a  temperature  of  260°,  and  even  in  some 
experiments  as  high  as  264°,  the  heat  of  their  bodies 
never  rose  higher  than  102°,  making  a  difference  of 
160°,  between  them  and  the  air  in  which  they  were 
placed. 

In  what  manner  the  heat  is  carried  off. — If  we  look 
for  the  means  which  nature  displays  to  carry  away  the 
superabundant  heat  to  which  the  system  is  exposed,  we 
shall  find  that  perspiration  is  the  most  obvious,  though  not 
the  only  one  to  which  we  can  refer.  The  boiling  water, 
in  the  rooms  in  which  these  experiments  were  made,  as 
is  the  case  every  where  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  nev- 
er exceeded  212  degrees,  the  remaining  heat  being  car- 
ried off  by  the  steam  rising  from  its  surface.  In  like 
manner  the  gentlemen  state,  that  within  a  few  moments 
after  entering  the  heated  room,  their  persons  were  cov- 
ered with  a  profuse  perspiration,  which  continued  as 
long  as  they  staid.  But  besides  this  cause,  the  operation 
of  heated  air  on  the  system  is  not  so  great  as  might  be 
expected  in  consequence  of  its  being  so  highly  ratified, 
and  expanded,  that  comparatively  few  particles  come  in 
contact  with  the  surface  of  the  body.  It  has  been  found 
also,  that  the  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed  by  the  lungs, 
(which  is  the  source  of  animal  heat,)  during  these  experi- 
ments, is  much  less  than  ordinary,  most  probably  owing 
to  the  rarity  of  the  air. 

It  appears  that  these  are  the  several  causes  which 
conspire  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  animal  system 
nearly  the  same  as  ordinary,  when  exposed  to  high  de- 
grees of  heat. 

STRUCTURE    OF    THE    BONY,    OR    OSSEOUS    FABRIC. 

The  framework  of  all  vertebrated  animals  is  made  of 
bone,  the  appearance  of  which  we  need  not  describe. 

What  are  the  means  employed  by  nature  to  resist  high  degrees  of  heat  1 
Why  is  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  stationary  at  212°  1 


STRUCTURE    OF    THE    BONE.  81 

The  composition  of  bone  is  chiefly  phosphate  of  lime, 
cemented  into  a  solid  form  by  animal  matter.  On  ex- 
posure to  heat,  bone  becomes  black,  in  consequence  of 
the  conversion  of  this  animal  matter  into  charcoal.  In 
the  mean  time  the  oil  contained  in  the  cavities  takes  fire, 
and  all  the  combustible  materials  of  which  the  bone  is 
composed  are  consumed.  It  now  becomes  white  and 
porous,  having  by  the  process  lost  about  half  its  weight. 
What  remains,  being  as  it  were  the  skeleton  of  perfect 
bone,  is  phosphate  of  lime  deprived  of  its  animal  ce- 
ment. It  is  now  so  brittle  as  to  be  broken  by  a  light 
blow,  or  even  ground  to  powder  in  a  mortar.  On  break- 
ing the  bone  across,  we  are  now  able  to  discover  the 
cavities  which  contained  the  oily  matter,  and  probably 
also  some  of  those  which  contained  the  animal  cement. 

On  the  contrary,  by  steeping  a  bone  in  a  quantity  of 
acid,  sufficiently  diluted  to  prevent  its  action  on  the  ani- 
mal matter,  we  may  deprive  it  of  its  phosphate  of  lime, 
and  preserve  this  matter  entire.  The  substance  remain- 
ing after  the  solid  matter  has  been  dissolved,  retains  the 
exact  form  of  the  bone,  but  is  soft,  flexible,  and  elastic ; 
and  is  resolvable  into  a  jelly,  by  boiling.  This  substance 
is  very  nourishing,  and  is  that  which  forms  the  soup 
made  from  bones. 

The  different  mechanical  purposes  for  which  the  bones 
of  the  living  system  are  employed,  require  that  they 
should  be  of  a  great  variety  of  forms.  Thus  the  spine, 
or  principal  support  of  all  the  vertebrata,  requiring  mo- 
tion in  all  directions,  is  made  up  of  a  great  number  of 
pieces,  joined  together  by  a  layer  of  cartilage  between 
each  two,  which  by  its  elasticity  allows  of  the  required 
motions.  The  wrist  and  ankle  are  also  composed  of 
many  pieces  each,  also  allowing  of  general  motion.  On 
the  contrary,  the  limbs  acting  as  a  system  of  levers,  con- 
nected by  joints,  are  composed  of  solid,  firm  pieces,  gen- 
erally of  a  cylindrical  form,  and  of  considerable  length, 

What  is  the  composition  of  bone  1  Why  does  burning  bone  become 
black  1  Why  does  burned  bone  become  white  7  When  a  bone  is  steep- 
ed in  acid,  what  part  of  its  composition  is  destroyed  1  What  is  the  ap- 
pearance, and  what  the  consistence  of  the  bone,  when  the  phosphate  of 
lime  is  destroyed  7  What  is  said  of  the  different  forms  of  bones  7 


VERTEBRATED   ANIMALS. 


having  motion  only  at  the  points  of  connection.  Lev- 
ers of  various  kinds,  most  artificially  and  beautifully  com- 
bined, are  found  in  the  limbs  of  quadrupeds,  the  wings 
of  birds,  and  the  fins  of  fishes.  The  construction  of 
these  bones  combine  strength  and  lightness  to  an  admir- 
able degree,  being  hollow  cylinders,  with  the  enlarged 
ends  porous. 

All  the  long  bones  of  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  man,  are 
made  on  this  principle.  When  we  come  to  the  physi- 
ology of  the  birds,  we  shall  find  a  wonderful  provision 
in  that  particular  class  to  ensure  lightness,  the  bones  be- 
ing thin  cylindrical  tubes  filled  with  air. 

In  the  corresponding  bones  of  quadrupeds,  the  interi- 
Fig.  61  and  62.  or  ^s  filled  with  an  oily  substance 
called  marrow,  which  is  entire  and 
undivided  along  the  shaft,  or  small- 
est part  of  the  cylinder,  but  is  con- 
tained in  pores  towards  the  two  ex- 
tremities, where  there  is  a  spongy 
expansion  of  bony  matter,  for  the 
purpose  of  strengthening  the  enlar- 
ged size  of  the  bone  at  these  parts. 
Fig.  61  represents  a  longitudinal 
section  of  the  femur,  or  human 
thigh  bone,  showing  the  dense,  sol- 
id substance  of  the  external  parts, 
and  the  cavernous  and  spongy 
structure  of  the  interior.  Fig.  62 
shows  a  similar  section  of  the  hu- 
merus,  or  bone  of  the  arm  which 
joins  the  shoulder.  It  is  said  by 
mechanical  philosophers,  who  have 
made  experiments  on  this  subject, 
that  it  would  have  been  impossi- 
ble to  have  otherwise  formed  with 
the  same  quantity  of  solid  mat- 
ter, a  lever  so  strong,  and  yet  so 
light,  as  that  presented  by  the  long 
bones  of  the  quadrupeds  and  man. 


What  is  said  of  the  construction  of  bones  which  are  used  as  levers  1 
Give  a  description  of  the  structure  of  the  two  bones  shown  by  Fig.  61  and 
€8.  What  is  said  of  the  mechanical  strength  of  the  long  bones  ? 


FORMATION    OF    BONE.  83 


FORMATION   AND    GROWTH    OF    BONE. 

In  the  earlier  stages  of  animal  growth,  there  is  form- 
ed in  those  parts  of  the  system  which  are  ultimately  to 
be  supplied  with  bone,  a  cartilaginous  pattern  in  minia- 
ture, of  the  bone  itself.  This  cartilage  is  semi-hard, 
somewhat  tenacious,  and  translucent.  When  the  bone 
begins  actually  to  form,  the  cartilage  becomes  absorbed 
at  the  centre  of  the  piece,  and  a  few  ossific  particles  are 
deposited  in  its  place.  As  the  process  goes  on,  cartilage 
continues  to  be  taken  up  and  bone  formed  in  its  room, 
from  the  centre  towards  the  circumference,  or  extremi- 
ties, until  the  whole  becomes  ossified. 

In  the  cylindrical  bones  the  process  begins  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  cylinder,  forming  a  ring  there,  which  increas- 
es in  both  directions,  until  the  whole  becomes  bone. 
Several  of  the  bones  of  animals,  particularly  those  ol 
the  skull,  are  not  completely  formed  until  the  animal 
is  of  considerable  age. 

The  heads  of  the  bones  are  formed  independently  of 
the  shafts,  being  separate  pieces  with  a  thin  layer  of  car- 
tilage between  them.  Afterwards  these  parts  unite, 
the  cartilage  being  replaced  by  bone  ;  but  this  does  not 
happen  in  our  species,  until  the  age  of  fifteen  or  eighteen 
years. 

The  bones  are  well  supplied  with  blood  vessels,  which 
enter  about  the  middle  of  the  long  bones,  and  penetra- 
ting the  central  cavity,  pass  both  upwards  and  down- 
wards, supplying  the  substance  of  the  bone  with  small 
branches,  and  giving  off  some  very  delicate  arteries 
which  secrete  the  marrow.  It  is  the  arteries  which 
thus  pass  into  the  bones,  giving  off  the  most  delicate 
fibres  through  every  part  of  its  substance,  that  secrete, 
and  form  the  bone  itself. 

Every  bone  is  surrounded  by  a  thin  membrane,  call- 
ed the  periosteum,  from  which  pass  into  the  exter- 
nal, and  most  solid  part  of  the  bone,  thousands  of  fine 
blood  vessels  by  which  this  part  was  formed,  and  is  still 

In  what  manner  is  it  said  bones  are  formed  7  Are  the  long  bones  of 
young  animals  formed  of  one,  or  several  pieces  1  Are  the  solid  parts  of 
bones  supplied  with  blood  vessels  or  not  T  What  is  the  membrane  which 
surrounds  the  bones  called  1  What  vessels  deposite,  or  secrete  bone  ? 


84 


VERTEBRATED    ANIMALS. 


nourished,  as  is  proved  by  the  fact,  that  the  destruction 
of  the  periosteum,  causes  the  death  and  decay  of  the 
part  over  which  it  was  placed. 


SPINE    OF    THE    VERTEBRATA. 

The  word  spine  signifies  a  thorn ;  this  part  of  the  skel- 
eton being  so  called,  because  each  piece  of  which  the 
back  bone  is  formed,  has  a  projecting  process  outward, 
making  as  a  whole  that  prominent  ridge  so  well  knowrn 
as  the  spine  in  various  animals.  Thus  by  common  con- 
sent, and  long  usage,  a  column  made  up  of  many  pieces, 
is  not  only  named  after  a  sharp  pointed  instrument,  but 
is  spoken  of  as  a  single  bone. 

This  column,  in  the  human  species,  consists  of  twenty- 
four  distinct  bones,  named  vertebra,  from  the  Latin  ver- 
tere,  to  turn,  because  this  part  of  the  skeleton  has  mo- 
tion in  every  direction. 

Of  these  twenty-four  pieces,  five  belong  to  the  loins, 


Fig.  63. 


twelve  to  the  back,  and  seven  to  the 
neck.  The  whole  spinal  column  is  rep- 
resented by  Fig.  63,  of  which  the  pieces 
above  2,  and  below  1,  belong  to  the  neck 
and  loins  ;  while  those  between,  belong 
to  the  back. 

The  spine  is  the  foundation,  or  chief 
mechanical  support  of  the  whole  skele- 
ton ;  and  not  only  so,  as  giving  protec- 
tion to  the  spinal  cord,  which  in  one  sense 
is  a  part  of  the  brain,  being  a  continua- 
tion of  its  substance,  but  is  a  very  essen- 
tial part  with  respect  to  the  nervous  sys- 
tem. 

A  single  vertebra  is  shown  by  Fig.  64, 
where  the  lower  part,  or  body,  which  is 
somewhat  radiated  on  the  surface,  is  that 
by  which  it  is  joined  to  its  fellow.  The 
elongation  s  is  called  the  spinous  process  ; 
and  is  that  which,  when  the  whole  are  in 
place,  forms  the  ridge  of  the  spine,  or 
back.  Besides  this,  there  is  another  pro- 
jection, t,  on  each  side  of  the  base  of  the 


SPINE    OF   THE   VERTEBRATA.  85 

Fig.  64.  arch,  on  which  the  spinous  processes  are 
situated.  These  are  called  the  trans- 
verse processes  of  the  vertebrae.  The 
arch  formed  by  the  united  bases  of  these 
processes,  and  a  groove  in  the  body  of 
e  vertebrae,  form  the  canal  through 
which  the  spinal  marrow  passes.  This 
aperture  through  a  single  vertebra,  is 
obvious  in  the  adjoining  figure.  When 
all  are  united,  they  form  a  continuous  canal  with  solid 
walls,  for  the  protection  of  that  most  important  part  of 
the  animal  system  next  to  the  brain,  the  spinal  marrow. 
The  spine  is  the  great  central  beam  of  the  whole  fabric 
of  the  skeleton.  To  this  part  all  the  other  bones  are 
connected  by  muscles,  and  joints,  the  whole  being  thus 
combined  into  a  general  frame  work.  It  is  the  common 
axis  of  all  the  motions  of  the  limbs,  by  furnishing  fixed 
points  for  the  attachment  of  all  the  larger  muscles. 

No  where  has  the  mechanical  art  of  the  Great  Ar- 
chitect of  Nature,  been  more  skillfully  displayed,  than  in 
the  construction  of  this  part  of  our  frames.  Had  the 
spine  been  made  of  a  single  rigid  piece,  it  would  be  lia- 
ble to  fracture  by  blows  which  it  now  withstands  with 
impunity  ;  and  besides,  such  a  construction  would  have 
deprived  us  of  a  great  variety  of  motions,  which  are  now 
so  important  to  us  in  the  business  and  comforts  of  life. 

Between  the  bodies  of  each  bone  there  is  an  elastic 
cartilage,  allowing  of  a  little  motion  in  all  directions  ;  and 
this  slight  flexure  at  each  part,  being  multiplied  through 
the  whole  column,  admits  of  sufficient  motion  for  all  our 
purposes. 

In  addition  to  the  cartilaginous  connection,  the  spinal 
bones  are  bound  together  by  strong  ligaments  and  mus- 


Whatdoes  the  word  spinemean'?  Why  is  the  back  bone  called  spine? 
How  many  bones  does  the  spine  consist  of?  How  are  these  bones  divi- 
ded, and  what  names  are  given  to  each  division  1  What  is  said  of  the 
mechanical  importance  of  the  spine  1  What  very  important  part  does 
the  spine  protect  1  Which  is  the  spinous,  and  which  the  transverse  pro- 
cesses of  the  spine  1  What  most  important  portion  of  the  system  is  pro- 
tected by  the  spinel  What  is  said  of  the  importance  of  the  spine,  as 
connected  with  the  other  parts  of  the  bony  fabric  1  What  would  have 
been  the  consequences,  had  the  spine  been  formed  of  a  single  piece? 
How  are  the  several  pieces  of  the  spine  connected  together  ? 

8 


86 


VERTEBRATED   ANIMALS. 


cles,  passing  from  one  process  to  the  other,  through  the 
whole  line,  thus  combining  the  twenty-four  pieces  into 
one  entire,  and  firm  column. 

It  is  by  the  action  of  these  muscles,  thus  passing  lon- 
gitudinally along  the  spine,  that  we  are  enabled  to  bend 
it  backwards  and  forwards,  or  from  right  to  left.  Thus 
the  back  is  made  hollow,  or  bent  backwards,  when  the 
muscles  attached  to  the  spinal  processes  are  contracted  ; 
and  when  those  attached  to  the  transverse  processes 
are  contracted  on  the  one  side,  and  relaxed  on  the  oth- 
er, then  the  column  is  bent  from  the  right  towards  the 
left,  or  the  contrary,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Fig.  65. 


The  connection  of  the  spine  of  the  human  frame  with 
the  ribs  and  arms,  is  shown  by  Fig.  65.     The  ribs  are 

How  is  the  spinal  column  made  to  bend  backwards,  or  from  right  to 
left? 


SPINE    OF   THE   VERTEBRATA.  87 

generally  twelve  in  number  on  each  side,  though  in 
some  instances  they  are  found  to  be  thirteen,  and  more 
rarely  only  eleven.  They  are  distinguished  into  true 
and.  false  ribs.  The  seven  upper  ones,  which  are  artic- 
ulated, or  joined  to  the  sternum,  c,  are  called  true  ribs, 
while  the  five  lower  ones,  which  are  not  immediately  at- 
tached to  the  sternum,  or  breast  bone,  but  to  a  cartilage 
connected  with  it,  are  called  the  false  ribs.  The  other 
extremities  of  the  ribs  are  articulated  by  small  heads  to 
the  vertebrae,  and  secured  by  a  ligament,  so  as  to  allow 
of  a  small  motion  upwards  and  downwards,  but  in  no 
other  direction. 

The  use  of  the  ribs  is  to  give  form  to  the  thorax,  to 
cover  and  defend  the  lungs  and  heart,  which  are  situa- 
ted within  them  ;  and  also  to  assist  in  breathing,  by  their 
alternate  elevation  and  depression. 

The  sternum,  c,  or  breast  bone,  it  is  well  known  is  sit- 
uated in  front  of  the  thorax.  In  young  people  this  bone 
is  in  several  parts,  united  by  cartilages ;  but  as  we  ad- 
vance in  life  these  cartilages  ossify,  or  are  changed  into 
bone.  Its  shape  is  oblong,  and  its  external  surface  con- 
vex. To  its  edges  are  immediately  articulated  the  sev- 
en upper  ribs. 

The  clavicle,  b,  has  its  name  from  the  Latin  clavis, 
which  appears  to  come  from  clando,  to  shut,  this  bone 
resembling  in  shape  an  ancient  key.  It  is  usually  called 
the  collar  bone,  and  is  placed  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
breast,  or  root  of  the  neck,  extending  across  from  the 
tip  of  the  shoulder  to  the  upper  part  of  the  sternum.  It 
is  a  round  bone,  curved  somewhat  into  the  shape  of  the 
italic  S.  It  supports,  and  maintains  the  shoulder  in  its 
proper  place,  and  prevents  it  from  falling  forwards  to- 
wards the  breast.  Its  outer  end  is  firmly  fixed  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  scapula,  or  shoulder  blade.  Animals 
which  employ  their  fore  feet  as  hands,  are  furnished  with 
this  bone,  as  the  monkey  tribe  and  squirrels ;  while 

What  is  the  number  of  ribs  in  the  human  skeleton  7  How  are  they 
distinguished  1  To  what  part  are  the  seven  upper  ribs  articulated  in 
front  1  How  are  the  anterior  ends  of  the  five  lower  ribs  secured  1  How 
are  the  posterior  ends  of  all  the  ribs  secured  7  What  are  the  uses  of  the 
ribs  1  What  is  said  of  the  sternum  1  Whence  is  the  name  clavicle  ? 
What  is  the  common  name  of  this  bone  7  To  what  parts  is  the  clavicle 
articulated  1  What  animals  besides  man  have  this  bone  7 


88  VERTEB RATED   ANIMALS. 

those  which  make  no  such  use  of  their  feet,  are  without 
it,  as  the  horse  and  sheep. 

The  bones  of  the  arm  are  the  humerus,  d,  and  the  ra- 
dius and  ulna,  e  and/. 

The  humerus  is  a  long  cylindrical  bone,  with  its  up- 
per end  articulated  to  the  scapula,  forming  the  shoulder 
joint.  At  the  point  of  articulation,  the  extremity  is  en- 
larged into  a  round,  smooth  head,  which  is  admitted  into 
the  glenoid,  or  shallow  cavity  of  the  scapula,  where  it  is 
strongly  secured  by  ligaments,  but  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  allow  it  motion  in  all  directions. 

At  its  lower  extremity  the  humerus  is  gradually  ex- 
panded, for  the  articulation  of  the  two  bones  of  the  fore 
arm,  the  radius  and  ulna,  both  of  which  are  connected 
with  this  bone  at  their  upper  extremities,  forming  the  el- 
bow joint. 

The  mechanism  of  the  elbow  joint,  as  well  as  the  ac- 
tion of  the  muscles  on  the  radius  and  ulna,  together  with 
the  mechanism  and  wonderful  powers  of  the  hand,  will 
be  reserved  for  another  place,  while  we  proceed  to  an 
account  of  the  spines  of  other  vertebrated  animals. 

The  whole  number  of  bones  in  the  human  species, 
amount  to  240. 

Unity  of  design  manifested  in  the  constitution  of  the 
Spines  of  Vertebrated  Animals. — It  is  a  truth  as  won- 
derful as  it  is  instructive,  which  the  study  of  nature  de- 
velopes,  that  although  the  Creator  had  Almighty  power 
and  Infinite  wisdom,  and  might  therefore  have  varied 
his  plans  and  executed  his  designs  in  an  infinite  number 
of  ways,  in  the  construction  of  the  different  races  of 
animals,  that  we  still  find  an  economy  of  design,  and  a 
unity  of  plan  in  the  general  construction  of  the  frame 
work,  or  foundations  of  the  grand  divisions  of  animals 
which  prevails  throughout  all  the  orders,  or  sub-divisions, 
however  different  the  destinies,  or  habits  of  the  distinct 
races  may  be  from  each  other.  Reasoning  and  judging 
on  this  subject  as  we  do  with  respect  to  the  arts  of  man, 

"What  are  the  bones  of  the  arm  called  1  What  joint  is  formed  by  the 
articulation  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  ?  What  bones  are  articulated 
with  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus  1  What  is  said  of  the  unity  of  design, 
as  exhibited  in  the  spines  of  various  animals  1 


SPINE    OF   THE.  VERTEBRATA. 


we  should  be  led  to  suppose  that  the  frame  work  of  our 
own  species  had  first  been  constructed,  and  that  the 
corresponding  parts  of  other  animals  had  been  varied 
from  this,  only  so  far  as  their  means  of  existence,  habits, 
or  the  element  in  which  they  were  destined  to  live, 
made  it  absolutely  necessary. 

We  have  already  stated  that  the  spine  is  the  main 
column,  or  most  substantial  part  of  the  skeleton  of  ver- 
tebrated  animals,  and  we  have  described  and  figured 
this  part  as  it  exists  in  our  own  frames.  We  will  now 
show  the  unity  of  design  which  exists  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  animal  kingdom,  by  comparing  the  spines  of 
other  animals  with  that  belonging  to  the  human  frame. 

Mechanical  elements  in  the  Vertebra. — The  number 
of  elements,  or  mechanical  parts  which  enter  into  the 
composition  of  the  Vertebrae  of  different  animals   is 
shown  by  Fig.  66.     This  does  not  represent  the  precise 
Fig.  66.  form   of   any  vertebra,  but  is 

meant  to  combine  the  elements 
of  the  corresponding  parts  as 
existing  in  vertebrated  animals 
generally.  The  first  part  is  the 
nucleus  or  body  of  the  vertebra 
&,  which  is  present  in  all  the 
species.  Next  in  importance  is 
the  bony  plates,  or  leaves  as  they 
are  called  /,  /,  which  proceed 
from  the  sides  of  the  body,  and 
embrace  the  spinal  marrow, 
which  runs  through  the  aperture 
between  them  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  Another  essential  ele- 
ment is  the  spinous  process  s, 
which  unites  the  two  plates,  and 
thus  completes  the  superior  arch,  of  which  it  may  be 
considered  as  the  key-stone  for  the  protection  of  the 
spinal  cord.  Then  come  the  two  transverse  processes 
t,  t,  which  extend  outwards,  towards  the  sides,  and  with 
which  the  ribs  r.  r,  are  generally  connected.  These 


Explain  Fig.  66.    Point  out  the  parts  that  are  essential  to  a  vertebra* 
8* 


90  VERTEBRATED   ANIMALS. 

are  the  six  parts  which  comparative  anatomists  consider 
the  elements  of  the  vertebrae,  and  which  are  found  in 
most  vertebrated  animals,  however  various  in  form,  size, 
or  habits,  they  may  be.  In  some  cases  however,  in  ad- 
dition to  these,  there  is  the  process  f,  bifid  at  the  base, 
and  forming  a  spine  at  the  lower  surface  of  the  verte- 
bra, or  opposite  to  the  spinous  process.  This  structure 
is  common  in  the  Fishes.  The  aperture  formed  by  the 
bifurcation  of  this  process  admits  the  passage  of  a  large 
artery. 

As  our  plan  will  not  allow  an  extension  of  this  part 
of  our  subject  to  the  different  orders  of  the  vertebrata, 
we  will  omit  any  illustration  from  the  quadrupeds,  as 
being  most  nearly  allied  to  man  in  the  scale  of  organi- 
zation, and  therefore  most  likely  to  present  similar 
spines;  and  since  illustrations  the  most  remote  from 
man  in  the  scale  of  being,  will  tend  most  clearly  to  show 
a  unity  of  plan  in  the  construction  of  the  whole,  we 
will  give  examples  from  some  of  the  lower  orders  of 
vertebrated  animals. 

Vertebra  of  Fish. — Fig  67  represents  a  section  of  a 
Fig.  67.  part  of  the   spine  of  a  Fish 

standing  in  the  natural  posi- 
tion. The  body  of  each  ver- 
tebra is  hollowed  out  on  both 
sides,  so  as  to  form  cup  like 
cavities ;  by  which  means, 
when  the  two  convex  cavities 
are  applied  to  each  other  as  in 
the  living  animal,  a  cavity  hav- 
ing the  shape  of  a  short  double 
cone  is  formed,  as  shown  in 
the  figure.  These  cavities  left  by  the  bones,  are  filled 
with  a  gelatinous  substance,  which  is  nearly  incompress- 
ible, and  which  appears  to  serve  as  a  kind  of  pivot  for 
the  motions  of  the  joint.  By  dividing  a  spine  in  the 
centre,  these  parts  are  seen,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
A  single  vertebra  is  represented  by  Fig.  68,  for  the 

Explain  Fig.  67.    What  is  the  difference  between  the  vertebrae  of 
quadrupeds  and  fishes'? 


SPINE    OF   THE    VERTEBRATA 


01 


Fig.  68.  purpose  of  showing  the  peculiarity  of  this 
part  in  the  Fish,  and  which  forms  one  of  the 
elements  of  Fig.  66,  which  is  marked  f. 

In  the  vertebrae  of  the  Fishes,  therefore, 
we  see  two  spinous  processes  /,  f,  standing 
opposite  to  each  other,  the  one  "above  and 
the  other  below  the  body,  while  the  trans- 
verse processes  are  wanting.  These  are  the 
points  of  difference  between  the  spines  of 
this  class  of  animals,  and  those  of  the  land 
vertebrata. 

The  design  of  this  difference  will  immediately  become 
obvious,  if  we  stop  for  a  moment  to  inquire  what  sort  of 
motion  in  the  spine,  is  best  calculated  to  impel  the  fish 
through  the  element  where  it  lives.  The  spines  of  the 
vertebrae,  standing  in  a  vertical  position,  when  the  fish  is 
in  its  usual  posture,  all  vertical  motions,  or  flexures  of  the 
spinal  column  upwards  and  downwards,  is  entirely  pre- 
vented, the  motions  being  limited  to  flexures  from  side 
to  side.  Now  since  the  fish  moves  through  the  water, 
on  the  same  principle  that  a  boat  is  propelled  by  what  is 
called  sculling,  that  is,  by  a  single  oar  moved  backwards 
and  forwards  in  the  stern,  it  is  plain  that  any  compound 
flexure  of  the  spine  would  rather  retard,  than  facilitate 
its  progress. 

Locomotion  of  Fishes. — The  manner 
in  which  fishes  give  themselves  pro- 
gressive motion  through  the  water, 
will  be  understood  by  Fig.  69.  Sup- 
pose that  the  tail  is  curved  to  the  right 
as  shown  in  the  figure,  and  in  this  situ- 
ation the  muscles  on  the  left  side  act 
suddenly,  so  as  to  bring  the  fish  into  a 
straight  line,  then  the  re-action  of  the 
water  against  the  motion  of  the  tail  in 
the  direction  of  r,p,  would  give  the 
whole  body  an  impulse  contrary  to 
that  of  the  re-action,  and  the  centre 
of  gravity  c,  would  move  in  the  direc- 
tion of  c,  5,  which  is  parallel  to  p,  r. 
This  impulse  is  not  destroyed  by  the 
next  flexure  of  the  tail  in  the  contrary 


Fig.  69. 


92  VERTEBRATED   ANIMALS. 

direction,  because  the  principal  force  exerted  by  the 
muscles  has  already  been  exerted  in  the  motion  from  r 
to  ?7i,  in  bringing  the  tail  in  a  straight  line  with  the  body  ; 
and  the  force  which  carries  it  on  to  Z,  is  much  weaker, 
and  therefore  occasions  but  a  feeble  re-action  of  the 
water.  When  the  tail  has  come  to  /,  a  similar  action 
of  the  muscles,  on  the  other  side  will  give  an  impulse 
in  the  direction  of  k,  I,  and  a  motion  of  the  whole  fish 
in  the  same  direction,  that  is  in  the  line  c,  a.  The  flex- 
ures, and  consequent  re-action  of  the  tail  being  repeat- 
ed in  quick  succession,  the  fish  moves  forwards  in  the 
diagonal  of  c,  d,  intermediate  between  the  direction  of 
the  two  forces. 

By  bending  the  whole  body  almost  to  a  circle,  and 
then  suddenly  straightning  it,  fishes  are  able  to  leap  out 
of  the  water,  or  to  ascend  a  perpendicular  cataract  of 
considerable  height. 

Did  the  plan  of  this  little  work  allow  an  extension  of 
the  subject  of  this  section,  it  could  be  shown  that  the 
spines  of  the  frog,  tortoise,  birds,  and  indeed,  all  other 
vertebrated  animals  present  a  striking  similarity  in  their 
structures,  and  that  their  forms,  lengths,  and  peculiari- 
ties are  deviations  from  the  general  plan  we  have  de- 
scribed, only  so  far  as  is  necessary  to  adapt  them  to  the 
general  organization  of  the  animals  to  which  they  be- 
long. However  ignorant  any  one  may  be  of  anatomy, 
he  will  generally  distinguish  the  back  bone  of  any  animal 
without  mistake,  so  great  is  the  similarity  in  all. 

STRUCTURE    OF    BIRDS. 

In  no  class  of  animals  is  the  structure  of  the  several 
parts,  so  obviously  adapted  to  the  uses  for  which  we  see 
them  employed  as  in  the  Birds.  In  these  animals,  the 
frame  of  the  skeleton,  the  figure,  position,  and  construc- 
tion of  the  wings,  the  size  of  the  muscles ;  the  lightness 
of  the  whole  system  when  compared  with  the  size,  to- 


In  what  directions  does  the  spine  of  a  fish  allow  of  motion  ?  Would 
any  other  motion  assist  the  fish  in  its  progress  T  Explain  fig.  69,  and 
show  in  what  manner  the  fish  gains  progressive  motion  through  the 
water  1  What  is  said  of  the  peculiar  adaptation,  of  the  construction  of 
birds  to  the  element  in  which  they  move  1 


STRUCTURE    OP    BIRDS.  93 

gether  with  the  positions  and  strength  of  the  quills,  and 
feathers,  all  have  a  direct  and  beautiful  relation  to  the 
properties  of  the  element,  in  which  they  are  intended  to 
move. 

In  no  part  of  Creation,  therefore,  do  we  see  more  di- 
rect and  positive  marks  of  design  in  the  Great  Author 
of  Nature,  than  in  the  adaptation  of  means  to  specific 
ends,  than  in  the  construction  of  Birds. 

What  is  particularly  striking  in  the  skeletons  of  these 
animals  when  compared  with  others,  is  the  vast  size  of 
the  sternum,  or  breast  bone  as  seen  at/,  Fig.  70.  This 
bone  not  only  covers  the  whole  chest  to  a  considerable 
depth  on  each  side,  but  extends  back  nearly  to  the  inser- 
tion of  the  legs.  Its  lower  part  forms  a  deep  perpendic- 
ular crest,  shaped,  it  is  well  known,  like  the  keel  of  a 
ship,  the  whole  being  remarkably  thin  and  light,  when 
compared  with  the  extent  of  its  surface.  The  design  of 
this  great  developement  is  obviously  to  furnish  an  exten- 
sive surface  for  the  attachment  of  the  pectoral  muscles 
to  be  employed  in  the  motions  of  the  wings.  In  many 
Birds  these  muscles  outweigh  all  the  others  of  the  body 
put  together,  and  it  is  owing  to  their  great  power  that 
the  eagle  and  other  birds  have  such  amazing  strength  of 
wing,  as  to  carry  animals  heavier  than  themselves,  and 
that  the  Swan  sometimes  breaks  a  man's  leg  by  a  single 
flap  of  his  pinion. 

But  in  addition  to  the  general  appearance  of  lightness 
which  the  bones  of  Birds  present,  the  cylindrical  ones 
are  hollow  tubes  filled  with  air.  In  this  they  differ  from 
all  other  living  bones,  those  of  other  animals  being  filled 
with  marrow. 

The  lungs  of  Birds  are  placed  on  the  ribs,  between 
which  their  substance  also  projects.  They  are  of 
a  compact  texture,  and  so  bound  down  to  their  places 
among  the  ribs,  as  to  have  no  expansive  and  contrac- 
tile motion,  like  those  of  other  animals ;  hence  respi- 
ration in  this  order  is  carried  on  by  alternately  enlarg- 
ing and  contracting  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  as  will  be 

For  what  purpose  is  the  breast  bone  peculiarly  large  in  the  birds? 
With  what  substance  are  the  bones  of  birds  filled  1  In  what  manner  is 
^aspiration  carried  on  in  birds  1 


94 


VERTEBRATED    ANIMALS. 


explained  in  another  place.  The  air  not  only  circulates 
through  the  lungs  by  this  means,  but  also  penetrates  the 
cavities  of  the  bones  through  vessels  constructed  for  this 
purpose.  In  Birds  not  formed  for  extensive  flight,  this 
provision,  however,  is  much  less  extensive  than  in  others. 
Thus  in  the  domestic  fowl,  the  humerus,  or  first  bone  of 
the  wing  is  the  only  one  filled  with  air.  But  in  the 
Eagle  and  other  tribes  which  spend  much  of  their  lives 
in  the  air,  nearly  all  the  bones  are  hollow,  and  are  filled 
with  the  element  in  which  they  live.  The  air  thus  ad- 
mitted becomes  considerably  rarified  by  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  Bird,  by  which  provision  the  whole  body  is 
rendered  considerably  lighter  than  it  otherwise  would 
have  been. 

In  all  this  we  cannot  but  observe  a  wonderful  adap- 
tation in  the  construction  of  the  animal  to  its  habits,  and 
the  element  in  which  it  lives. 

Structure  of  the  Back  Bones  of  Birds  and  Fishes. — 
In  the  structure  of  the  two  classes  of  vertebrata,  the 
Birds  and  Fishes,  we  may  trace  remarkable  differences, 
which  are  obviously  dependent  on  the  adaptation  of 
each  to  the  elements  in  which  they  are  respectively  des- 
tined to  live.  In  the  Fish,  the  chest,  and  all  the  viscera 
are  placed  as  far  forward  as  possible ;  the  respiratory 
organs,  which  are  the  gills,  and  the  heart  being  also  close 
to  the  head.  Thus  the  bulk  and  consequently  the  centre 
of  gravity,  being  placed  near  the  head,  the  tail  is  left 
light  and  flexible  for  the  purpose  of  motion.  In  the 
Fish,  the  neck,  or  rather  that  portion  usually  occupied 
by  the  neck  in  the  other  classes,  disappears,  its  place 
being  filled  with  those  parts  usually  found  in  the  chests 
of  other  animals. 

In  the  Birds,  on  the  contrary,  the  viscera  are  placed 
as  far  back  as  possible,  and  a  long  flexible  neck  is  con- 
tained between  the  trunk,  and  head,  so  as  to  place  them 
at  a  considerable  distance  asunder.  In  Fish,  progressive 
motion  is  effected  by  the  tail,  the  impulse  being  given  by 
its  horizontal  flexures  from  one  side  to  the  other.  In 

What  difference  is  there  in  the  different  kinds  of  birds  with  respect  to 
the  quantity  of  air  contained  in  their  bones  1  What  reiiiarkabk  differ- 
ence is  there,  between  the  construction  of  birds  and  that  of  fishes  1 


STRUCTURE   OP   BIRDS. 


95 


the  Birds,  the  instruments  of  motion  are  fixed  to  the  fore 
part  of  the  trunk,  the  impulse  being  given  by  the  verti- 
cal, or  up  and  down  action  of  the  wings  at  the  same  in- 
stant. In  the  Fish,  the  spine  is  flexible,  especially  to- 
wards the  tail,  while  in  the  Bird  this  part  is  rigid  through 
the  body,  having  motion  only  in  that  part  which  forms 
the  neck. 

Birds  change  the  centre  of  gravity. — It  is  by  means 
of  the  neck,  that  the  Bird  is  enabled  to  change  its  centre 
of  gravity  according  to  circumstances.  In  the  act  of 
flying,  this  centre  must  be  between  the  articulations  of 
the  wings  ;  while  in  resting  on  its  legs,  it  must  be  be- 
tween the  feet.  Had  not  Birds  the  power  of  adjusting 
the  centre  of  gravity,  they  could  neither  fly  with  precis- 
ion through  the  air,  nor  rest  secure  on  their  feet. 
Fie.  70. 


Skeleton  of  a  Swan. — The  skeleton  of  a  Swan  rep- 
resented by  Fig.  70,  will  not  only  serve  to  show  in  what 


96  VERTEBRATED   ANIMALS. 

manner  these  changes  with  respect  to  the  centre  of 
gravity  are  effected,  but  also  how  nearly  the  bones  of 
Birds  correspond  with  our  own.  The  neck  of  this  Bird 
is  composed  of  twenty-three  bones,  most  of  them  so 
articulated  together  as  to  allow  of  free  motion  in  all  di- 
rections. By  extending  this  part  in  a  straight  line,  the 
bird,  while  flying,  moves  the  centre  of  gravity  so  as  to 
bring  it  to  some  point  between  the  insertions  of  the 
wings,  whereas,  while  the  Swan  is  floating  on  the  water, 
or  resting  on  the  feet,  the  neck  is  thrown  backwards  and 
curved  into  the  form  of  the  letter  S,  by  which  the  equi- 
librium of  the  whole  system  is  preserved  by  throwing 
the  centre  of  gravity  between  the  feet.  On  the  same 
principle  all  other  Birds  are  enabled  to  preserve  their 
equilibria  in  any  position  they  choose  to  take. 

Comparison  between  the  bones  of  Men  and  Birds. — 
We  have  already  shown  that  there  is  a  general  simili- 
tude in  the  skeletons  of  all  the  Vertebrated  animals, 
and  especially  in  their  spines.  At  first  view  it  would 
hardly  be  thought  that  there  could  be  much  similarity 
between  the  bones  of  a  Bird,  and  those  of  a  Man,  and 
yet  on  a  closer  examination  we  shall  find  that  the  general 
principles  of  structure  are  the  very  same,  and  not  only  so, 
that  some  of  the  individual  bones  approximate  each 
other  in  form.  Thus  the  humerus,  of  which  a,  Fig.  70,  is 
the  head,  has  a  general  form  like  that  of  our  own  species. 
It  is  flattened  in  the  same  manner  at  the  lower  extremity 
for  the  articulation  of  the  two  tones,  the  radius  and  ulna. 
The  two  latter  bones,  b,  with  which  the  humerus  form- 
ing the  elbow  joint,  are  also  the  same  in  number,  and 
somewhat  similar  in  shape  to  those  forming  the  corres- 
ponding part  of  the  human  skeleton.  The  carpus,  or 
wrist,  c,  consists  of  only  two  bones,  the  one  articulated 
with  the  radius,  the  other  with  the  ulna.  These  move 
together  as  one  piece.  The  metacarpus,  or  hand  d,  also 
consists  of  two  bones,  but  these  are  united  so  closely  as 
to  form  only  one  in  effect  and  use.  Below  these,  at  e, 
there  is  a  little  projecting  bone  which  may  be  considered 
as  a  rudimental  thumb. 

The  prehensive  organ  in  Birds  being  the  bill,  and  as 


ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS.  97 

nature  never  furnishes  any  organs  but  such  as  are  abso- 
lutely necessary,  so  the  terminations  of  the  wings  of 
Birds,  instead  of  being  furnished  with  bones  and  muscles 
which  have  the  prehensile  power,  like  the  hand,  are  only 
provided  with  such  as  are  fitted  for  the  insertion  of 
quills. 


PART    III. 

ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 


THE  Vital  functions,  or  actions,  of  animals  are  such  as 
are  immediately  essential  to  life,  as  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  respiration,  secretion,  and  absorption.  Without 
these  the  animal  cannot  exist.  The  animal  functions  are 
those  which  support  and  renovate  the  system,  and  with- 
out which  the  vital  functions  could  not  long  be  maintain- 
ed, as  digestion,  nutrition,  and  the  formation  of  chyle. 
These  are  not  immediately  essential  to  life,  but  may  be 
suspended  for  a  time.  The  mechanical  functions  are 
such  as  depend  on  the  will,  as  the  action  of  the  muscles, 
whether  employed  for  the  purposes  of  swimming,  flying, 
or  walking.  The  instruments  by  which  mechanical 
action  is  effected  have  been  the  chief  subjects  of  the 

What  are  the  vital  functions  of  animals  7    What  are  the  animal  func- 
tions ?    What  are  the  mechanical  functions  ? 


98  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

foregoing  pages,  and  we  shall  now  proceed  to  treat  of 
the  animal  functions,  reserving  for  future  consideration  the 
action  of  the  human  muscles,  which  can  be  most  properly 
noticed  when  we  come  to  speak  of  Physical  Education. 

SOURCES    OP    NUTRITION. 

The  nutrition  which  nature  has  provided  for  the  vari- 
ous tribes  of  animals,  is  derived,  entirely,  from  two 
sources,  namely,  from  the  animal  and  vegetable  king- 
doms. But  as  the  carnivorous  tribes  derive  their  food 
from  those  which  are  herbivorous,  the  nourishment  of 
all  is  ultimately  derived  from  the  earth  itself. 

Vegetable  food. — The  economy  of  nature,  is  no  where 
more  wonderfully  manifest  than  in  the  adaptation  of 
animals  to  the  consumption  of  every  kind  of  nutrition, 
there  being  hardly  any  organized  substance  which  does 
not  furnish  food  for  some  living  creature.  The  succu- 
lent parts  of  vegetables  are  not  only  the  chief  source  of 
nourishment  of  the  greater  proportion  of  the  larger  ani- 
mals, but  also  serve  the  same  purpose  to  myriads  of 
insects.  Many  tribes  of  birds  likewise,  live  on  vegeta- 
bles, but  insects  become  the  food  of  the  larger  number, 
while  not  a  few  are  strictly  carnivorous.  But  while 
these  substances  are  the  common  food  of  the  most 
numerous  races,  even  the  hardest  parts  of  vegetables, 
and  the  most  poisonous  plants  serve  the  same  purpose  to 
certain  other  tribes.  The  larvae  of  various  insects  live 
by  eating  their  way  through  the  diseased  portions  of 
timber  logs  ;  while  the  Nettle,  the  Deadly  Night-shade, 
the  Henbane,  and  other  acrid  and  poisonous  plants, 
afford  wholesome  food  to  several  species.  Some  live 
on  fruits  and  seeds,  and  others  on  the  juices  which  they 
pump  from  succulent  plants. 

Animal  food. — But  while  a  vast  number  of  tribes 
thus  subsist  on  the  fruits  of  the  ground,  these  in  their 
turn  become  the  prey  of  at  least  as  great  a  number  of 

Whence  do  animals  derive  their  nutrition  7    What  is  said  of  the  ex- 
tent to  which  vegetables  serve  as  the  food  of  animals  ? 


SOURCES    OF    NUTRITION.  99 

carnivorous  animals.  Every  part  and  portion,  of  the 
earth's  surface  ;  every  tree,  every  building,  every  room 
in  which  we  live,  and  even  the  atmosphere  which 
we  breathe,  contain  a  greater  or  less  number  of  beings, 
which  are  perpetually  on  the  alert  to  procure  victims 
for  their  voracious  appetites.  From  the  spider,  which 
"  taketh  hold  with  her  hand  and  liveth  in  king's  pala- 
ces," to  the  lion  which  prowls  over  the  deserts  of  Africa, 
there  is  an  uninterrupted  series  of  Carnivora,  ready  to 
suck  the  blood  of  any  living  thing  they  can  master. 

We  can  see,  and  shudder  at  beholding  the  formidable 
arms  of  the  lion,  and  tiger,  and  can  observe  the  murder- 
ous disposition  of  the  cat.  But  there  are  thousands  of 
insects  which  lie  in  wait  for  their  prey,  and  which  emu- 
late the  feline  race  in  their  savage  dispositions,  which 
fall  under  the  observation  of  none  except  naturalists. 
Many  of  these  when  only  a  few  hours  old,  begin  to  hunt 
for  their  prey,  and  continue  during  their  lives,  to  subsist 
only  by  war  and  bloodshed.  Many  of  them  are  canni- 
bals, devouring  their  own  kind,  or  even  their  own  fami- 
lies, without  hesitation,  when  other  food  does  not  come 
in  the  way.  Nor  are  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
water,  whether  fresh  or  salt,  less  predacious  in  their  dis- 
positions. From  the  larvae  that  is  contented  with  the 
stagnant  pool  by  the  road  side,  to  the  shark  that  roams 
through  the  wide  ocean,  there  exists  a  continued  series 
of  animals,  not  less  rapacious  in  their  dispositions,  and 
even  more  voracious  in  their  habits,  than  the  correspond- 
ing series  which  inhabit  the  land. 

Many  of  the  carnivorous  tribes  insist  upon  killing 
their  own  food,  and  will  touch  nothing  which  they  find 
already  dead  ;  while  others  are  too  indolent  to  live  by 
the  chase,  and  are  contented  to  devour  any  thing  that 
once  had  life,  in  whatever  state  they  may  fiad  it. 

In  the  absence  of  the  larger  animals,  myriads  of 
insects  are  ever  ready,  in  the  warmer  seasons,  to  devour 
any  dead  animal,  no  matter  in  whatever  place  it  may  be 
found. 

So  strongly  was  Linnaeus  impressed  with  the  immen- 
sity of  the  scale  on  wrhich  the  work  of  demolition  was 

What  is  said  of  carnivorous  animals,  and  their  food  1 


100  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

carried  on  by  insects,  that  he  used  to  maintain  that  the 
carcass  of  a  horse  would  not  be  devoured  by  a  single 
lion,  as  soon  as  it  would  by  three  green  flesh  flies,  (Mus- 
ca  vomitoria,)  and  their  immediate  progeny :  for  it  is 
known  that  one  such  fly  will  lay  20,000  eggs,  which  in 
the  course  of  a  single  day  will  produce  larvae,  each  of 
which  will  devour  so  much  food,  as  in  another  day  to 
increase  its  weight  two  hundred  times ;  and  each  of  these 
20,000  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  more,  will  produce  a 
third  generation  equally  numerous. 

Relation  between  the  organization  of  Animals  and  their 
food. — Thus  we  see  that  one  race  of  animals  is  destined 
to  become  the  food  of  others,  and  these  again  are  in 
their  turn  consigned  to  the  same  fate  from  their  more 
powerful  enemies.  Each  kind,  whether  they  subsist  on 
vegetables  or  flesh,  are  so  organized  as  to  digest  the  food 
which  their  appetites  crave.  The  peaceful  cow  and 
sheep  are  contented  with  cropping  the  blades  of  grass 
from  the  field,  because  their  organs  of  nutrition  are  fitted 
for  the  digestion  of  this  kind  of  food  and  no  other.  But 
the  lion,  the  tiger,  and  all  other  carnivorous  animals  are 
organized  only  for  the  digestion  of  flesh,  and  can  no 
more  live  upon  herbs,  than  the  cows  and  sheep  can  sub- 
sist upon  each  other.  Hence  the  Creator  has  pro- 
vided these  animals  with  claws  to  secure  their  prey, 
and  cutting  teeth  to  tear  and  divide  it ;  and  since 
this  is  the  only  mode  by  wrhich  such  animals  can  live,  we 
are  no  more  at  liberty  to  treat  these  races  with  cruelty 
because  they  tear  other  animals  in  pieces,  than  we  have 
to  mal-treat  the  cow  because  she  crops  the  herbage  of 
the  field. 

Mian  Omnivorous. — But  while  one  class  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  are  herbivorous,  and  another  carnivorous,  from 
their  structure,  the  lord  of  the  creation,  has  a  stomach, 
and  a  general  organization,  which  so  far  as  food  is  con- 
cerned, embraces  both  these  classes,  and  hence  Man 

What  is  said  of  cruelty  towards  the  predacious  animals  ?    How  may- 
animals  be  divided  with  respect  to  their  subsistence  ? 


ANIMAL    NUTRITION.  101 

may  be  called,  as  he  strictly  is,  the  omnivorous,  or  all- 
eating  animal. 


ANIMAL    NUTRITION. 

When  we  examine  the  structure  of  the  very  lowest 
orders  of  animal  existences,  we  find,  that  whatever 
other  parts  may  be  wanting,  whether  they  be  eyes,  or 
ears,  or  nerves,  or  brain,  or  organs  of  locomotion,  two 
parts  are  always  present,  to  wit,  a  mouth  and  a  stomach. 
Without  these  no  animal  can  exist,  for  however  com- 
plex the  organization,  in  other  respects,  may  be,  nothing 
can  compensate  for  the  organs  of  nutrition.  From  the 
account  we  have  given  of  the  structure  of  the  Hydra, 
it  would  appear  that  nearly  every  other  part  usually 
constituting  an  animal  may  be  dispensed  with,  except 
these ;  and  that  some  of  the  Polypi  consist  of  little  or 
nothing  more  than  a  throat  and  organ  of  digestion. 

Some  animals  have  several  stomachs. — Some  of  the 
polypi  tribes  have  at  least  four  stomachs,  and  the  Asteria 
or  star-fish  a  very  common  inhabitant  of  our  sea  shores, 
has  ten  distinct  digestive  organs. 

Fig.  71. 


The  mouth  of  this  animal,  a,  is  situated  in  a  depres- 
sion at  the  centre  of  the  under  surface,  and  leads  into 
a  capacious  sack  or  bag,  placed  immediately  above  it, 
when  the  animal  lies  with  the  mouth  downwards  which 

What  is  said  of  the  necessity  of  a  mouth  and  stomach  to  each  animal  1 
What  is  said  of  the  number  of  stomachs,  possessed  by  some  animals  1 
9* 


102  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

is  the  natural  position.  From  this  central  sack,  there 
proceeds  ten  prolongatives,  or  canals,  which  occupy  in 
pairs,  the  centre  of  each  ray,  or  division  of  the  body,  of 
which  there  are  five  to  each  star-fish.  These  prolonga- 
tions, or  stomach  subdivide  into  numerous  ramifications 
on  each  side,  as  shown  by  Fig.  71,  c  c,  which  represents 
one  ray  of  the  Asteria,  laid  open  from  the  upper  side. 
Each  ray  has  two  stomachs,  such  as  are  here  shown, 
making  ten  for  every  animal. 

Increased  complexity  in  the  Stomach  of  the  higher 
orders. — We  shall  not  consider  it  necessary  to  describe 
the  apparatus  for  digestion  belonging  to  the  different 
grades  of  animals  as  they  ascend  in  the  scale  of  organi- 
zation. It  will  be  sufficient  for  our  purpose  to  state 
that  the  operations  preparatory  to  the  introduction  of 
food  into  the  stomach,  increase  in  some  proportion  to 
the  complexity  of  the  animal  organization.  Thus  the 
hydra  takes  its  food  into  the  stomach  in  precisely  the 
same  state >that  it  happens  to  come  to  the  mouth,  and 
the  fish,  snake,  frog,  and  many  other  tribes  swallow  their 
aliment  in  an  entire  state.  Neither  have  the  birds  any 
organs  for  mastication,  so  that  in  common  writh  them, 
they  take  their  food  in  an  undivided  state.  But  the 
birds  are  furnished  with  an  apparatus  for  grinding  the 
materials  thus  swallowed,  before  they  are  introduced 
into  the  stomach,  thus  affording  an  example  of  com- 
plexity in  the  organs  of  nutritition,  proportionate  to  the 
general  scale  of  organic  developement  which  these  ani- 
mals exhibit.  In  all  the  warm  blooded  quadrupeds,  the 
food  is  prepared  by  mastication  and  admixture  with 
saliva,  before  its  introduction  into  the  stomach.  With 
the  exception  of  man,  all  animals  take  their  food  in  the 
raw,  or  natural  state  ;  but  with  him  great  preparations, 
and  often  very  pernicious  ones,  are  made  to  suit  the 
aliment  to  his  pampered  taster  before  the  act  of  masti- 
cation commences. 

Man  eats  nearly  every  digestible  thing. — Man  being 
an  all-eating  animal,  there  hardly  exists  an  article  which 
can  be  digested,  in  the  sea,  on  the  land,  or  in  the  air,  that 
he  has  not  in  some  way  or  other  contrived  to  render 


GRINDING    OF    FOOD.  103 

palatable,  or  at  least  to  convert  by  the  science  of  cooke- 
ry, into  something  he  can  take  into  his  stomach. 

The  most  active  ingredients  in  the  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal kingdoms,  and  even  slow  poisons,  are  in  common  use 
as  condiments,  for  what  otherwise  would  be  wholesome 
food  ;  and  notwithstanding  man  is  the  most  anxious  of 
all  animals  to  procure  long  life,  and  is  perpetually  invent- 
ing new  and  improved  methods  to  prolong  his  earthly 
existence,  yet  in  practice  no  animal  shows  so  little  wis- 
dom on  that  very  point  for  which  he  is  so  anxious,  as  the 
Lord  of  Creation.  All  the  inferior  animals  are  taught 
either  by  instinct  or  experience  to  avoid  deleterious 
aliment,  and  to  select  such  food  as  is  most  congenial,  and 
wholesome,  and  in  the  wild  state  most  animals  would 
starve  rather  than  touch  the  food  which  man  prepares 
for  himself.  Indeed,  no  being  which  the  Creator  has 
brought  into  existence,  except  the  dog  and  the  swine, 
could  long  exist  on  the  scientific  compounds  which  man 
has  invented  to  gratify  the  artificial  cravings  of  his 
omnivorous  appetite.  These  animals  having  been,  from 
time  immemorial  subjected  to  human  power,  the  one  his 
companion,  and  the  other  the  object  of  his  cravings, 
have  finally  like  their  masters,  acquired  indiscriminate 
appetites.  But  notwithstanding  the  pernicious  effects  of 
luxurious  indulgence,  it  will  be  shown,  in  another  place, 
that  man  requires  a  variety  of  nutriment. 

GRINDING    OF    FOOD. 

Animals  which  are  furnished  with  jaws  and  teethr 
prepare  their  food  for  the  stomach  by  mastication.  But 
there  are  several  tribes  which  are  not  provided  with 
such  an  apparatus,  and  which,  as  they  take  solid  food, 
require  some  internal  means  of  breaking  it  in  pieces, 
before  it  enters  the  stomach.  All  the  birds  which  live 
on  seeds,  as  well  as  the  lobster  and  crab  are  provided 
with  an  apparatus  for  this  purpose. 

The  part  which  performs  this  office  in  the  birds  is 
well  known  under  the  name  of  gizzard.  That  which 
performs  the  same  functions  in  the  lobster  is  very  differ- 
ent in  its  construction,  though  equally  efficacious  in  ha 
operations. 


104  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

Grinding  apparatus  of  the  Lobster. — This  part  in  the 
Fig.  72.  Lobster  is  represented  by 

Fig.  72,  which  shows  the 
inside  of  the  stomach,  to- 
gether with  the  triturating 
machinery  at  its  entrance. 
There  is  a  cartilaginous 
frame  work,  in  which  the 
hard  calcareous  bodies 
marked  a,  b,  and  c,  are 
implanted.  These  have 
the  form,  and  perform  the 
office  of  teeth.  The  tooth  «,  is  situated  in  the  middle 
of  this  frame ;  it  has  a  conical  rounded  shape,  and  is 
smaller  than  the  others,  b  and  c,  are  of  the  same  size 
and  shape. 

When  these  three  teeth  are  brought  together  by  the 
action  of  the  surrounding  muscles,  they  exactly  fit  into 
each  other,  and  are  capable  by  the  motion  which  is  given 
them,  of  completely  pulverizing  the  small  shells  of 
mollusca,  which  have  been  introduced  into  the  cavity  of 
the  stomach  as  food. 

Grinding  apparatus  of  Birds. — But  the  internal 
machinery  for  grinding  is  larger,  and  more  completely 
formed  in  the  granivorous,  or  grain-eating  birds  than 
in  any  other  animal.  In  carnivorous  birds,  as  the  owl 
and  eagle,  this  part  is  entirely  wanting,  but  is  found  in 
all  the  tribes  which  live  on  the  seeds  of  vegetables  as  the 
Hen,  Goose,  Pigeon,  Swan,  <fcc.  In  proper  with  the 
ancient  notion,  that  "every  part  helps  a  part,"  the  grind- 
ing faces  of  the  gizzard  are  dried,  ground,  and  taken  to 
help  digestion,  to  this  day. 

This  organ,  called  the  gizzard,  has  in  its  structure  and 
mode  of  action  some  analogy  to  the  corn-mill.  It  con- 
sists of  two  powerful  muscles  of  a  hemispherical  shape 
with  their  flat  sides  applied  to  each  other,  and  their  edges 
united  by  a  strong  tendon  which  leaves  an  oval,  vacant 

Describe  the  triturating  machine  in  the  stomach  of  the  lobster.  What 
tribes  of  birds  are  furnished  with  gizzards  1 

, 


GRINDING    OF    FOOD. 


105 


Fig.  73.  space  between   their  surfaces. 

This  mechanism  is  shown  by 
Fig.  73,  which  represents  the 
gizzard  of  a  swan  laid  open  so 
as  to  display  the  two  grinding 
faces  g.  These  surfaces  are 
covered  with  a  dense  horny 
substance,  which,  when  brought 
together  and  made  to  move 
backwards  and  forwards,  are 
capable  of  crushing  the  hardest 
seeds,  and  of  reducing  them  to 
powder.  To  assist  in  this  ope- 
j  ration,  many  birds  swallow 
small  stones  which  mixing  with 
the  grain,  facilitate  the  process. 
In  most  birds  with  gizzards,  there  is  a  part  called  the 
crop  ^represented  and  laid  open  and  empty  at  c,  in  which 
the  food  is  collected  and  softened  by  heat  and  moisture, 
before  it  enters  the  gizzard.  This  part  therefore,  acts  as 
the  hopper  to  the  mill,  and  from  it  only  a  few  grains  are 
admitted  at  a  time,  as  they  are  ground  and  pass  on  to 
the  digestive  organ,  or  proper  stomach. 

The  gizzards  of  birds  have  been  the  subjects  of  nu- 
merous, and  elaborate  experiments,  by  various  physi- 
ologists. Those  of  Spallanzani  were  the  best  conducted, 
and  are  the  most  celebrated.  He  introduced  balls  of 
glass  into  the  gizzard  of  a  turkey,  and  found  that  they 
were  ground  to  powder.  Tin  tubes  were  also  flattened 
and  bent  into  various  shapes  by  the  powerful  action  of 
its  muscles  ;  and  even  the  points  of  needles  and  lancets, 
set  in  balls  of  lead  were  worn,  or  broken  off,  while  the 
grinding  part  itself,  appeared  to  have  suffered  not  the 
least  injury. 

These  results  at  the  time  they  were  made  and  pub- 
lished, struck  all  philosophers  with  wonder  and  amaze- 
ment, and  calculations  were  soberly  made  in  order  to 
estimate  the  actual  power  required  in  the  muscles  of 
the  gizzard  to  perform  such  feats. 

But  the  celebrated  John  Hunter  having  instituted 
further  inquiries,  found  that  the  pressure  of  the  two 
faces,  instead  of  being  perpendicular,  as  was  supposed, 


106  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

is  lateral,  and  at  the  same  time  somewhat  circular,  so 
that  the  power  it  exerts,  though  immensely  great,  is  di- 
rected nearly  in  the  plane  of  the  grinding  surfaces,  and 
thus,  that  the  sharp  edges  and  points  were  bent  or  broken 
by  a  grinding  motion,  and  not  by  direct  force. 

But  this  does  not  account  for  some  of  the  results  ob- 
served in  the  appearance  of  the  sharp  points  which 
were  worn  off  as  if  rubbed  on  a  stone.  This  effect  was 
at  first  attributed  to  the  acrid,  or  solvent  juices  of  the 
organ ;  but  as  was  afterwards  proved,  is  really  the  ef- 
fect of  the  pebbles  which  are  always  found  in  the  giz- 
zards of  birds,  when  they  can  be  obtained.  No  doubt 
now  exists  among  naturalists,  but  that  these  pebbles  are 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  perfect  digestion  of  the  food, 
the  action  of  the  gizzard  alone  being  insufficient  to  re- 
duce its  contents  to  the  proper  state  for  that  proce  ss. 

After  the  food  has  been  prepared  by  the  gizzard  it 
passes  on  to  the  stomach,  where  by  a  process  to  be  Ijere- 
after  described,  digestion  and  assimilation  is  performed. 

ORGANS  OF  NUTRITION  AND  VITALITY    IN  THE  MAMMALIA. 

The  Mammalia  include  the  highest  orders  of  organic 
developement,  in  the  animal  kingdom,  embracing  as  the 
term  signifies,  all  such  animals  as  nurse  their  young,  as 
the  human  species,  the  quadrupeds,  quadrurnanna,  or 
monkey,  and  whale. 

These  animals  are  provided  with  a  complication  of 
organs,  all  of  which  are  more  or  less  subservient  to  the 
process  of  digestion,  for  without  this  process,  none  of 
the  other  functions  could  long  be  sustained.  The 
heart  arid  arteries  would  in  a  short  time  cease  to  act, 
unless  they  were  supplied  with  blood,  and  the  blood  be- 
ing formed  of  chyle,  would  cease  to  be  produced,  if  the 
process  of  digestion  by  which  the  chyle  is  elaborated, 
should  be  suspended,  or  destroyed.  With  the  cessation 
of  arterial  action,  the  functions  of  the  brain  and  nerves 
would  fail,  and  thus  life  itself  would  become  extinct. 

What  animals  does  the  class  mammalia  include  1  What  other  func- 
tions depend  on  that  of  digestion  ?  If  the  action  of  the  heart  and  brain 
should  cease,  how  would  digestion  be  effected'?  What  is  said  of  the 
dependence  of  these  functions  on  each  other  ^ 


ORGANS    OF    THE    MAMMALIA. 


107 


And  so  in  its  turn,  the  process  of  digestion  would  cease 
with  the  want  of  action  in  the  heart,  and  brain,  so  that 
all  these  functions  are  performed  as  it  were  in  a  circle, 
each  one  being  dependent  on  the  other.  In  one  view, 
each  of  these  functions  may  be  considered  as  subservi- 
ent to  the  other,  while  in  another  view,  each  is  seen  to 
be  entirely  dependent  on  the  other. 

Plan  of  the  most  important  Viscera. — A  connected 
view  of  the  most  important  visceral,  and  vital  organs  are 
represented  by  Fig.  74.     This  is  a  side  view,  showing 
Fig.  74. 


the  natural  situation  of  the  parts  as  they  are  placed  in 
quadrupeds,  but  may  be  considered  as  applying  to  the 
human  species  without  any  material  change. 

In  the  explanation  of  this  view  we  will  begin  with  the 
passage  of  the  food  to  the  stomach.  The  esophagus  o, 
is  a  muscular  tube  leading  from  the  mouth  to  the  stom- 
ach, and  through  which  the  food  passes,  to  the  latter  or- 
gan. Of  the  stomach  s — c,  is  the  part  nearest  the  heart, 
and  is  called  the  cardia,  or  cardiac  portion,  while  the 
opposite  part  is  termed  pylorus.  This  leads  to  the  in- 
testinal tube  marked  i,  i.  The  mesentery  m,  connects 
the  latter  part  with  the  back,  the  use  of  which  will  be 
explained  directly.  The  enlargement  r,  is  the  recepta- 


108  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

cle  of  the  chyle,  and  from  which  there  proceeds  a  tube  t, 
called  the  thoracic  duct,  which  conveys  the  chyle  to  the 
circulation.  I,  is  a  portion  of  the  liver.  That  portion  of 
the  heart  h,  which  is  marked  u,  is  called  the  auricle, 
while  the  cavity  h,  is  called  the  ventricle,  a,  is  the  aorta, 
which  is  the  trunk  of  the  largest  artery,  and  v,  v,v,  are  the 
large  veins  which  convey  the  blood  "to  the  heart.  The 
part  b,  is  a  portion  of  the  lungs. 

Having  pointed  out  the  different  parts,  we  will  next 
explain  in  few  words,  the  different  processes  by  which 
food  is  changed  into  blood,  and  also  the  course  of  the 
blood  in  its  circulation. 

The  food  being  masticated,  and  mixed  with  the  fluid 
secretions  of  the  mouth,  is  then  collected  into  a  mass  by 
the  muscles  of  the  cheeks  and  tongue,  and  swallowed, 
being  carried  along  the  tube  o  by  its  contractions,<lown 
to  the  stomach  s.  There  it  is  mixed  with  a  fluid  secre- 
tion of  the  stomach,  called  the  gastric  juice,  and  by  which 
it  is  dissolved,  and  prepared  to  afford  chyle  after  it  has 
been  conducted  through  the  pylorus.  After  having  pas- 
sed the  pylorus  p,  the  food  is  mixed  with  the  bile,  a  bit- 
ter secretion  from  the  liver,  and  also  with  a  fluid  from 
the  pancreas,  when  a  portion  is  elaborated  into  chyle, 
and  is  ready  for  absorption  into  the  lacteals,  which  are 
the  vessels  spread  over  the  mesentery,  like  a  net  work, 
as  shown  by  the  figure. 

The  chyle  being  taken  up  by  the  lacteals,  the  mouths 
of  which  are  thickly  spread  over  the  interior  of  the  in- 
testinal tube,  is  carried  by  many  branches  to  the  recep- 
tacle of  the  chyle  r,  from  which  it  is  conveyed  by  the 
thoracie  duct,  t,  to  one  of  the  large  veins  under  the  arm, 
called  the  subclavian  vein,  and  by  this  vein  to  the  heart. 
It  thus  gains  admittance  to  the  general  circulation  of  the 
blood,  and  by  a  process  which  we  cannot  explain,  be- 
comes blood  itself. 

It  is  by  means  of  a  constant  reception  of  chyle  into  the 
circulation,  that  the  quantity  of  blood  continues  undimin- 
ished  ;  and  that  the  arteries  are  enabled  to  furnish  the 

Explain  Fig.  74,  and  point  out  the  name  and  situation  of  each  part,  as 
designated  by  the  letters.  In  what  part  of  the  system  is  the  chyle  thrown 
into  the  circulation  7 


ORGANS    OF   THE    MAMMALIA.  109 

glands  in  all  parts  of  the  system,  with  the  purple  fluid, 
from  which  all  the  various  secretions  are  produced.  By 
these  processes,  vegetable,  as  well  as  animal  matter,  is 
converted  into  flesh. 

It  is  through  the  routine  we  have  described,  from  the 
mouth,  to  the  subclavian  vein,  that  the  system  is  renova- 
ted, and  the  exhaustion  consequent  upon  the  exercise  of 
all  its  numerous  functions,  is  constantly  repaired,  and  the 
whole  system  kept  in  vigor  and  health.  Not  a  particle 
of  nourishment  can  be  added  to  the  circulation,  until  the 
food  has  been  changed  into  chyle  ;  nor  is  there  any  oth- 
er organ  by  which  the  chyle  can  be  conveyed  to  the 
blood,  except  the  thoracic  duct ;  hence  our  lives  con- 
stantly depend  on  a  little  stream  of  chyle,  about  the  size 
of  a  crow  quill,  which  enters  a  vein  -under  the  arm  pit. 
Without  this  source  of  renovation,  the  mass  of  blood 
would  soon  become  deficient  in  quantity  and  quality; 
there  would  be  no  remedy  for  exhaustion,  no  source  of 
muscular  power,  and  we  should  soon  fall  away  and  die 
of  inanition,  without  the  hope  of  a  remedy. 

Circulation  of  the  Blood. — The  blood  is  brought  from 
all  parts  of  the  system  by  the  veins,  which  are  constant- 
ly enlarging  by  communications  with  each  other,  as  they 
approach  the  heart.  The  veins  v  v,  Fig.  74,  are  called 
the  ascending  and  descending  vence  caves.  These  con- 
vey the  blood  to  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart,  u.  When 
the  auricle  is  full,  it  contracts,  and  sends  the  blood  to 
the  right  ventricle  h.  From  the  right  ventricle,  it  is 
thrown  by  the  strong  contraction  of  the  heart,  to  the 
lungs,  where  it  is  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  atmos- 
phere. It  is  then  brought  to  the  left  auricle  of  the  heart, 
which  contracting,  throws  it  into  the  left  ventricle,  the 
action  of  which  forces  it  through  the  aorta,  to  all  parts 
of  the  system,  to  be  returned  again  to  the  right  auricle 
by  the  veins,  as  before. 

This  however,  is  only  a  general  account  of  the  circu- 
lation ;  a  more  particular  one  being  reserved,  until  we 
come  to  treat  of  the  circulation  in  different  orders  of  an- 
imals, 

What  is  said  of  the  importance  of  the  chyle  to  the  living  system  ? 
10 


110  ANIMAL   FUNCTIONS. 


MASTICATION. 

This  word  comes  from  the  Latin  mastico,  which  signi- 
fies to  chew.  Chewing  is  one  of  the  natural  functions  of 
animals,  the  object  of  which  is,  to  divide  the  food  into 
minute  pieces,  and  thus  to  prepare  it  for  passing  through 
the  esophagus  into  the  stomach,  to  undergo  the  process 
of  digestion. 

While  the  food  is  masticating,  it  is  at  the  same  time 
intermixing  with  a  fluid  called  saliva,  which  is  prepared 
by  glands  situated  around  the  mouth,  and  into  the  cavi- 
ty of  which  it  is  poured  through  small  ducts,  coming 
from  the  glands  by  which  it  is  secreted.  The  action  of 
the  muscles  concerned  in  mastication,  serve  to  stimulate 
these  glands ;  in  consequence  of  which  they  afford  a 
larger  quantity  of  the  fluid  at  the  time  when  it  is  most 
necessary.  The  same  action  also  facilitates  the  passage 
of  the  saliva  into  the  mouth. 

If  the  mouth  had  been  constructed  without  this  pro- 
vision for  moistening  the  food,  it  is  obvious  that  dry,  ab- 
sorbent substances,  could  not  have  been  swallowed ; 
since  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  as  our  experience  teach- 
es, to  reduce  such  substances  to  a  soft  pulpy  mass,  be- 
fore they  can  be  forced  through  the  esophagus. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  form,  structure,  po- 
sition, and  number  of  the  teeth  of  different  animals;  all 
of  which  bear  a  direct  and  intimate  relation  to  the  kind 
of  food  on  which  they  subsist.  Thus  the  teeth  of  the  Li- 
on, the  Wolf,  and  the  Cat,  are  constructed  for  tearing  the 
flesh  of  animals ;  while  those  of  the  Cow,  Sheep,  and 
Deer,  are  made  to  crop  the  tender  herbs. 

The  teeth  of  the  Lion  could  no  better  perform  the  of- 
fice assigned  to  those  of  the  Cow,  than  the  Cow  could 
rend  the  skin,  and  divide  the  muscles  of  a  living  victim, 
in  the  manner  of  the  Lion. 

Teeth  of  Man. — In  the  human  subject  the  number  of 

What  is  meant  by  mastication  7  Is  chewing  a  vital,  or  a  natural 
function  1  What  is  the  use  of  mastication  7  How  is  the  food  moisten- 
ed during  mastication  7  What  is  said  of  the  form  of  the  teeth,  in  rela- 
£ion  to  the  kind  of  food  on  which  the  animal  lives  7 


MASTICATION. 


Ill 


teeth  is  thirty- two,  the  shapes  and  names  of  which  it  is 
proper  here  to  present  the  student. 

Fig.  75. 
a         a        b  c          c         d         d  d 


The  upper  row,  Fig.  75,  represents  the  upper  teeth  on 
the  left  side  ;  the  lower  one,  the  under  teeth  on  the  same 
side.  Those  situated  in  front  of  the  jaw,  the  bodies  of 
which  are  wedge  shaped,  are  called  the  incisores,  or  cut- 
ting teeth,  a  a.  At  the  sides  of  the  cutting  teeth,  and 
posterior  to  them,  stand  the  cuspidati,  or  canine  teeth,  b. 
The  bodies  of  these  are  also  somewhat  wredge-shaped, 
and  are  usually  called  the  eye  teeth.  Next  behind  the 
canine,  come  the  bicuspidati,  or  the  two  first  grinders, 
c  c.  The  bodies  of  these  are  oval,  with  the  surfaces  of- 
ten slightly  indented.  Behind  these  stand  the  molares, 
d  d  d,  forming  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  grinders.  In 
the  upper  jaw,  the  three  last  grinders  generally  have 
each  three  fangs,  while  the  corresponding  ones  of  the 
under  jaw  have  only  two. 

The  use  of  the  incisors  is  for  cutting  and  dividing  the 

What  number  of  teeth  has  the  human  species  ?  What  are  their 
names,  and  how  are  they  situated  with  respect  to  each  other  1 


112  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

food  in  the  manner  of  a  wedge,  and  thus  reducing  it  into 
pieces  of  a  convenient  size  to  be  easily  managed  by  the 
muscles  of  the  mouth.  The  canini  are  the  longest  of 
all  the  teeth,  deriving  their  name  from  their  resemblance 
to  a  dog's  tusk.  There  are  two  of  these  in  each  jaw, 
and  not  being  calculated  for  dividing,  they  appear  to  be 
designed  for  laying  hold  of  substances.  Of  the  molares, 
or  grinders,  there  are  ten  in  each  jaw,  the  use  of  which 
is  to  finish  the  process  of  mastication,  by  reducing  the 
food  into  a  proper  state  of  division  to  be  swallowed. 
The  crowns  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  grinders  have  com- 
monly five  points,  or  protuberances,  two  of  which  are 
on  the  inner,  and  three  on  the  outer  part. 

In  comparing  the  organs  of  mastication  belonging  to 
the  human  species,  with  the  corresponding  organs  of 
other  animals,  we  shall  observe  many  striking  differ- 
ences. The  general  difference  between  the  teeth  of  the 
carnivorous  and  herbivorous  tribes  has  already  been 
pointed  out,  but  we  shall  here  illustrate  this  subject  by 
means  of  drawings,  that  the  student  may  observe  for 
himself  the  distinctions  which  nature  has  impressed  on 
several  different  races  in  this  respect. 

Teeth  of  the  Tiger. — As  an  example  of  the  masticat- 
ing apparatus  with  which  the  feline  race  is  furnished,  the 
head  of  the  Tiger,  Fig.  76  is  represented.     All  parts  of 
Fig.  76. 


this  apparatus  are  evidently  formed  for  the  destruction 
of  life,  and  for  tearing  and  dividing  the  fleshy  fibres. 

What  are  the  use*  of  the  eanine  teeth  1     What  office  do  the  molar 
teeth  perform  1 


MASTICATION.  113 

The  canine  teeth  are  of  enormous  size  and  strength, 
tapering  gradually  to  a  sharp  point,  and  turned  inwards 
for  the  purpose  of  holding  whatever  they  grasp,  like  a 
pair  of  hooks. 

They  also  pass  each  other  in  such  a  manner,  as  when 
once  fixed,  to  render  it  impossible  for  the  victim  to  es- 
cape without  leaving  the  included  part  within  the  jaws 
of  the  animal. 

The  molar  teeth  instead  of  being  rounded  and  blunt 
on  the  crown  for  grinding,  are  armed  with  pointed  pro- 
jections which  correspond  in  the  opposite  jaws,  so  as 
exactly  to  lock  into  each  other  like  the  teeth  of  a  steel 
trap,  when  the  mouth  is  closed.  All  the  muscles  which 
close  the  jaws  are  of  enormous  size  and  power,  so  that 
their  action  imprints  the  bones  of  the  skull  and  jaws  with 
deep  impressions.  The  condyle  or  articulating  surface 
of  the  jaw  c,  is  received  into  a  deep  cavity,  constituting 
strictly  a  hinge  joint,  which  has  no  grinding  motion,  but 
is  confined  to  that  of  opening  and  shutting,  like  a  pair  of 
huge  forceps. 

Teeth  of  the  Antelope. — As  an  example  of  the  herbiv- 
orous animals,  the  skull  of  an  Antelope  is  represented  by 
Fig.  77.  In  this  animal  the  lower  jaw  is  furnished  with 

Fig.  77. 


eight  cutting  teeth,  the  upper  having  none.  There  is 
no  canine  teeth  in  either  jaw.  The  grinders  have  ex- 
tended flat  surfaces,  fit  only  to  reduce  tender  substances 
to  a  pulpy  mass.  The  temporal  muscle  attached  at  t, 

Describe  the  most  remarkable  parts  of  the  masticating  apparatus  in 
the  tiger. 

10* 


ANIMAL   FUNCTIONS. 

and  spreading  on  the  lower  jaw,  and  by  which  the  fatter 
is  chiefly  moved,  is  small  and  feeble  when  compared 
with  the  corresponding  part  in  the  feline  race.  The  ar- 
ticulation of  the  lower  jaw,  instead  of  being  such  as  to 
allow  only  of  a  hinge-like  action,  is  so  connected  as  to 
play  laterally  with  a  grinding  motion. 

Such  are  the  differences  which  the  Creator  has  made 
between  the  masticating  organs  of  the  flesh-eating,  and 
the  grain-eating  races  of  quadrupeds. 

Teeth  of  the  Gnawers. — There  is  still  another  family 
of  Mammalia,  which  are  remarkably  well  distinguished 
by  their  teeth,  and  which  remove  them  very  decidedly 
from  either  of  the  above  classes.  These  are  the  Roden- 
tia  or  gnawing  quadrupeds,  as  the  Squirrel,  Rat,  Beaver 
and  Rabbit. 

These  animals  appear  to  be  formed  for  gnawing  the 
hardest  of  vegetable  bodies,  as  the  shells  of  nuts,  or  for 
living  on  dry  tough  materials,  as  the  bark  of  trees,  and 
even  on  the  woody  fibres.  They  are  generally  of 
diminutive  size,  and  reside  mostly  either  in  hollow  trees, 
or  in  burrows  which  they  dig  for  themselves. 

As  an  example  of  the  chewing  mechanism  of  this 
family,  the  skull  and  teeth  of  the  Rat  are  represented  by 
Fig.  78.  Fig.  78.     The  cutting  teeth 

are  two  in  number  in  each 
jaw.  They  project  forward 
'  so  as  merely  to  admit  of  be- 
ing covered  by  the  lips,  and 
are  exceedingly  sharp,  having 
at  the  edge  the  exact  shape  of 
a  chisel.  The  roots  are  large, 
curved,  and  set  in  solid  bone, 
so  that  in  the 'dry  skull  they  cannot  be  extracted  without 
breaking  the  jaws.  The  grinding  teeth  are  marked  with 
raised,,  angular  lines,,  by  which  they  are  rendered  very 
perfect  instruments  for  the  trituration  of  hard  substances. 

Masticating  Organs  in  Man,  compared  with  those  of  the 
Mammalia. — In  comparing  our  own  organs  of  mastica- 


What  is  the  difference  between  the  teeth  and  jaws  of  canivorous  and 
herbivorous  animals  t  What  peculiarities  do  the  teeth  of  the  gnawers 
present  ? 


MASTICATION.  115 

tion  with  those  of  other  animals,  we  may  remark  in  the 
first  place,  that  man  has  neither  the  canine  instruments 
of  the  carnivora,  nor  the  cropping  incisors  of  the  her- 
bivorous tribes.  Neither  are  his  grinders  pointed  like 
the  first,  or  smooth  and  extended  on  the  surface  like  the 
last.  But  notwithstanding  the  want  of  those  prominent, 
and  decisive  features,  by  which  the  teeth  point  out  in  so 
remarkable  a  manner,  the  kind  of  subsistence  to  which 
each  class  of  other  animals  is  confined,  still  this  very 
want  of  coincidence,  is  a  decided  characteristic  of  the 
habits,  and  propensities  of  man  with  respect  to  his 
food. 

Having  neither  the  instruments  which  are  best  fitted 
for  tearing  raw  flesh,  nor  those  which  are  proper  for 
cropping  grass,  his  organs  of  mastication  are  intermedi- 
ate between  these,  and  are  better  constructed  than 
either,  for  the  breaking  down  of  semi-hard  bodies,  or 
those  of  moderate  cohesion.  In  the  mild,  or  savage 
state,  the  teeth  of  man  would  hardly  be  sufficient  for 
the  services  which  we  might  suppose  would  be  required 
of  them ;  though  in  this,  as  in  other  cases,  the  organs 
concerned  would  undoubtedly  be  strengthened  in  some 
proportion  to  the  power  required ;  hence  the  masticat- 
ing muscles  of  savages,  who  take  their  food  without 
cooking,  are  far  more  powerful  than  ours.  It  is  clear, 
however,  that  the  masticating  organs  of  man  were  not 
intended  for  such  a  mode  of  life,  but  on  the  contrary, 
that  the  Creator  designed  that  he  should  employ  a  por- 
tion of  his  faculties  in  modifying  and  preparing  the 
natural  productions  of  the  earth  for  his  food.  This  is 
proved  most  clearly  from  the  structure  both  of  his  mas- 
ticating, and  digestive  organs. 

It  is  true  that  man  in  his  natural  or  savage  state,  has 
the  power  of  digesting  many  substances,  in  the  con- 
dition of  natural  productions,  and  this  habit,  though 
necessity  may  be  acquired  by  the  most  civilized.  There 
are  also  certain  vegetables,  as  ripe  fruits,  which,  in  their 
natural  condition,  are  of  easy  digestion,  and  are  coveted 

How  do  our  teeth  compare  with  those  of  other  animals  1  Are  the 
teeth  of  man  constructed  to  take  food  in  its  natural  state  1  What  is  the 
conclusion  ? 


116  ANIMAL   FUNCTIONS. 

as  delicacies  among  all  classes,  whether  savage  orcivil- 
ized.  But  that  these  can  only  be  employed  as  adjuvants 
to  a  more  nutritive  diet,  is  shown  by  the  fact,  that  who- 
ever undertakes  to  live  exclusively  on  such  food,  will 
soon  find  his  muscular  powers  in  a  condition  to  require 
other  support ;  and  yet  of  the  natural  productions,  it 
would  seem  that  the  pithy  and  succulent  fruits  would 
afford  the  most  wholesome  nourishment. 

It  is  not  denied,  that  many  races  of  men,  have  lived, 
and  do  still  contrive  to  subsist  on  food  taken  in  its 
uncooked  state  ;  but  it  is  also  true  that  such  races  are 
generally  indolent  in  their  habits,  stinted  in  their  growth, 
feeble  in  muscular  powers,  and  often  nearly,  or  quite  idi- 
ots in  their  intellects. 

The  organization  of  man,  therefore,  appear^  abso- 
lutely to  require,  both  for  the  developement  of  his 
animal  system,  and  the  perfection  of  his  intellectual 
powers,  that  his  food  should,  at  least  in  part,  consist  of 
the  flesh  of  animals  prepared  by  cooking  for  the  pro- 
cesses of  mastication  and  digestion,  and  without  which, 
it  appears  that  he  cannot  perform  the  muscular,  or 
intellectual  duties  which  his  station  in  the  scale  of 
existence  demands. 


ORGANS   OF    DIGESTION. 

Having  described  the  organs  by  which  the  food  is 
prepared  to  pass  into  the  stomach,  it  is  now  time  to 
describe  that  organ  as  it  is  found  in  different  animals, 
and  to  point  out  more  particularly  than  we  have  done, 
the  processes  by  which  aliment  is  converted  into  nutri- 
tion. 

Human  Stomach. — The  principal  organ  concerned  in 
digestion,  is  the  Stomach.  This  is  a  large  membranous 
bag,  situated  obliquely  across  the  lower  part  of  the  chest, 
Fig.  79.  Its  shape  is  not  unaptly  compared  to  that  of 
the  bellows  of  a  bag-pipe.  In  the  adult  man  it  is  capa- 

Can  man  live  on  the  unprepared  productions  of  the  earth  or  not  7  Is 
this  the  state  in  which  he  was  designed  to  live  1  What  effect  does  this 
mode  of  living  have  on  the  human  race  1  What  is  the  conclusion  with 
respect  to  the  food  of  man  1  What  is  the  principal  organ  concerned  in 
digestion  1 


ORGANS    OF    DIGESTION.  117 

ble  of  holding  about  three  pints,  when  moderately  dis- 
tended.    As   already  stated,  under  Fig.  74,  a,  is  the 

Fig.  79. 


g 

esophagus,  or  passage  from  the  mouth ;  6,  the  cardiac 
portion  ;  c,  the  left  extremity  ;  d,  the  small  extremity ; 
and  e,  the  pylorus,  tied ;  g  g,  the  omentum,  or  caul, 
which  is  attached  to  the  outside  of  the  stomach,  and 
falls  down  from  it  like  a  curtain. 

Gastric  Juice. — The  chief  agent  concerned  in  diges- 
tion is  the  Gastric  Juice,  as  already  noticed.  This  fluid 
is  secreted  by  the  inner  coat  of  the  stomach,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  act  chemically  on  the  alimentary  substances, 
since  in  many  instances,  the  appearance  produced  is 
precisely  like  that  which  remains  after  the  action  of  a 
chemical  agent. 

The  effect  of  the  gastric  liquor  on  different  substan- 
ces bears  no  proportion  to  their  mechanical  texture,  or 
other  physical  properties  ;  for  while  in  some  animals  it 
speedily  dissolves  bone,  and  the  hardest  membranes,  it 
produces  not  the  slightest  effect  on  other  substances  of 
the  most  delicate  texture,  as  the  fibres  of  cotton,  or 
the  skins  of  fruits. 

What  is  the  chief  agent  of  digestion!  In  what  manner  is  it  suppos- 
ed that  the  gastric  fluid  operates  on  the  aliment  ? 


118  ANIMAL   FUNCTIONS. 

Physiologists  have  contrived  to  extract  the  gastric 
juice  from  the  stomachs  of  various  animals  by  means  of 
a  sponge,  which  being  introduced  in  the  dry  state  is 
withdrawn  filled  with  the  fluid,  which  being  squeezed 
out,  the  operation  is  repeated  until  a  quantity  for  expe- 
riment, is  obtained.  In  a  case  described  hereafter,  this 
was  unnecessary,  there  being  an  orifice  in  the  human 
stomach,  through  which  the  juice  was  taken.  The  fluid 
thus  obtained  is  destitute  of  any  sensible  properties  by 
which  its  power  as  a  solvent  can  be  accounted  for.  It 
is  a  clear  transparent  liquor,  with  little  taste  or  smell. 
But  its  action  on  various  substances  was  found  to  be 
very  peculiar  and  striking.  Spallanzani  formerly  the^ 
most  celebrated  experimenter  on  this  subject,  found,  that 
when  boiled  meat  was  exposed  to  the  action  of  this 
agent,  from  the  human  stomach,  that  it  lost  its  fibrous 
texture,  and  was  finally  reduced  to  a  pultaceous  mass, 
in  imitation  of  the  actual  process  of  digestion. 

It  was  found  also,  that  this  juice  from  the  stomachs  of 
animals  of  different  races,  produced  different  effects, 
thus  proving,  what  indeed  had  ever  been  proved  by  the 
animals  themselves,  that  the  stomachs  of  eagles  and 
other  carnivorous  animals  cannot  digest  vegetables,  nor 
can  the  sheep  and  ox  digest  meat.  That  from  the  stom- 
ach of  omnivorous  man  however,  was  found  to  dissolve 
both  vegetable  and  animal  matter,  with  equal  facility. 

Chemical  effects  of  the  Gastric  Juice. — Nearly  all 
physiologists  of  the  present  day,  are  agreed  that  the 
change  produced  by  the  action  of  the  gastric  fluid,  on 
the  aliment  of  the  stomach,  must  be  referred  to  chemi- 
cal principles,  and  yet  nothing  can  be  detected  in  the 
juice  itself  by  chemical  analysis,  which  in  any  degree 
accounts  for  the  phenomena  produced. 

The  coagulating  effect  of  the  gastric  juice,  is  its  most 
obvious  property.  By  this  property,  fluid  substances, 
whether  animal  or  vegetable,  which  are  capable  of  coagu- 
lation, are  rendered  nearly  solid.  Thus,  the  white  of 

When  the  gastric  juice  is  extracted  from  the  stomach  and  mixed  with 
food,  what  effect  is  produced?  What  was  proved  with  respect  to  the 
capacity  of  different  animals  to  digest  the  same  kind  of  food?  On  what 
principle  do  physiologists  account  for  the  effects  of  the  gastric  juice? 


COMPARATIVE    DIGESTION.  119 

eggs,  milk,  and  many  other  substances  susceptible  of  being 
converted  into  nutriment,  are  speedily  reduced  to  coagu- 
la,  after  which  they  are  entirely  dissolved  by  the  gastric 
juice.  The  effects  and  design  of  this  provision  is,  to 
retain  the  aliment  in  the  stomach,  a  sufficient  length  of 
time  to  be  thoroughly  acted  upon  by  its  digestive  power. 
For  it  has  been  ascertained  by  experiment,  that  if  the 
aliment  consists  of  too  large  a  proportion  of  fluid  mat- 
ter, though  ever  so  nutritive  in  its  qualities,  the  nourish- 
ment it  affords  will  be  but  small  in  quantity,  especially 
if  the  fluid  be  incapable  of  coagulation,  because  it  passes 
beyond  the  stomach,  before  it  is  fully  digested  or  dis- 
solved. 

Dr.  Hunter  ascertained  that  this  coagulating  property 
belongs  to  the  gastric  fluid  of  every  animal  he  examined 
for  this  purpose,  from  man  down  to  the  reptiles. 

Experiments  on  the  digestibility  of  different  kinds  of 
aliment  will  be  found  in  another  place. 

COMPARATIVE    DIGESTION. 

The  human  stomach,  as  we  have  seen,  is  exceedingly 
simple  in  its  construction,  consisting  merely  of  a  single 
sac  with  two  apertures. 

The  corresponding  part  of  herbivorous  animals  con- 
sists of  a  far  more  complex  apparatus,  being  composed 
of  four  distinct  sacs  or  stomachs,  communicating  with 
each  other,  and  exhibiting  as  a  whole  one  of  the  most 
impressive  examples  of  Creative  design,  any  where  to 
be  found  in  animal  structures. 

Stomach  of  a  Sheep. — The  delineation,  Fig.  80,repre- 


What  is  said  to  be  the  most  obvious  property  of  the  gastric  juice  1 
What  is  said  concerning  fluid  nutriment  ? 


120 


ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 


sents  the  stomach  of  a  sheep,  of  which  1,  2, 3,  4,  mark 
the  four  divisions,  c,  being  the  esophagus,  and  JD,  the 
pylorus. 

The  grass  which  is  taken  in  large  quantities  by  these 
animals  and  swallowed  in  nearly  a  dry  state,  and  with 
little  chewing,  is  first  received  into  the  large  sac,  or 
store  room,  No.  1,  which  we  may  call  the  first  stomach. 
Here  it  is  softened  by  the  warmth  of  the  animal,  and  a 
slight  degree  of  moisture.  Connected  with  this  is  the 
second  stomach,  No.  2,  which  is  much  smaller ;  and 
from  its  internal  membrane  being  formed  into  irregular 
folds,  resembling  a  net-work,- it  is  called  the  honey- 
comb  stomach  or  reticule. 

p.  This  reticulated  appearance  is 

shown  by  Fig.  81,  which  repre- 
sents a  portion  of  the  inner  mem- 
s  brane  of  this  part. 
L  A  singular  and  curious  connec- 
tion exists  between  this  stomach 
» and  the  first ;  for  while  the  eso- 
phagus appears  naturally  to  open 
into  No.  1,  there  is  on  each  side  of  its  termination  a 
muscular  ridge,  which  projects  from  the  orifice  of  the 
latter,  so  that  the  two  together  form  a  channel  leading 
into  the  second  stomach  ;  and  thus,  the  food  can  pass, 
probably,  at  the  will  of  the  animal,  into  either  of  these 
cavities.  The  design  of  this  arrangement  we  shall  see 
directly. 

From  the  observations  of  Sir  Everard  Home,  it 
appears  that  the  water  drank  by  the  animal  passes 
directly  into  the  second  cavity,  while  the  grass  always 
enters  the  first ;  these  apertures  must  therefore  be  open- 
ed and  closed  at  will,  or  by  a  natural  motion,  depending 
on  the  irritative  effects  of  the  grass  or  water. 

After  the  large  sac  is  well  filled,  the  animal  goes  to 
rest,  generally  lying  on  the  ground,  when  the  grass  is 
transferred  by  small  portions  at  a  time  into  the  reticula- 
ted stomach,  where  it  is  moistened,  and  then  by  the  mus- 
cular action  of  the  part,  rolled  up  into  a  ball,  and  by  an 
inverted  action  of  the  esophagus  thrown  up  into  the 
mouth,  where  it  is  masticated  at  leisure,  the  whole  form- 


COMPARATIVE    DIGESTION.  121 

ing  the  process  well  known  under  the  name  of  rumina- 
tion or  chewing  the  cud. 

After  the  mass  thus  elevated,  has  been  well  ground 
by  the  molares,  it  is  again  swallowed  and  passed 
into  No.  3,  or  the  third  stomach,  the  orifice  of  which  is 
brought  forward  to  receive  it  by  the  action  of  peculiar 
muscles,  at  the  same  time  the  mouths  of  the  two  other 
stomachs  being  closed  to  prevent  its  admission. 

The  food  is  now  prepared  for  digestion,  and  accord- 
ingly passes  into  the  fourth  stomach,  when,  being  mixed 
with  the  gastric  juice  it  is  converted  into  chyle,  which 
passing  into  the  circulation,  becomes  the  nutriment  of 
the  animal.  Who  can  examine  such  mechanism  with- 
out feeling  astonishment  and  awe ;  and  without  seeing 
wisdom  and  design  ? 

In  the  calf,  the  milk  is  conveyed  directly  from  the 
esophagus  to  the  fourth  stomach,  where  it  is  coagulated 
by  the  gastric  liquor,  and  then  assimilated  into  nutri- 
ment. It  is  this  stomach  of  the  young  animal  which 
forms  the  substance  called  rennet,  and  which,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  gastric  juice  it  contains  is  universally 
employed  to  coagulate  the  milk  for  the  formation  of 
cheese. 

Relation  between  the  Horns  and  Stomach. — That 
there  should  exist  any  connection  between  the  horns  of 
an  animal,  and  its  stomach;  or  that  the  absence,  or 
presence  of  the  former  should  indicate  any  thing  in 
reference  of  the  latter,  is  what  no  one  could  have 
suspected  ;  and  yet,  Sir  E.  Home  has  shown  that  rumi- 
nants with  horns,  as  the  Cow,  and  Sheep,  and  Goat  are 
universally  furnished  with  four  stomachs  ;  two  for  pre- 
paring the  food,  one  for  rumination,  and  one  for  diges- 
tion, as  already  explained ;  while  those  without  horns, 
as  the  Camel,  Lama,  and  Rabbit,  have  only  one  prepar- 
atory stomach  before  rumination,  which  answers  the 
purpose  of  the  two,  in  the  horned  animals.  Why  such 
a  difference  should  exist  in  animals  so  nearly  allied  in 
general  structure  and  habits,  is  one  of  the  mysteries  of 
nature. 

Water  cells  in  the  Stomach  of  the  Camel. — There  is 
11 


122  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

a  remarkable  provision  in  the  stomach  of  the  Camel, 
by  the  use  of  which,  that  animal,  and  no  other,  is 
enabled  to  traverse  the  wide  and  arid  deserts  of  the 
East. 

The  second  stomach  of  this  animal  has  a  separate 
compartment  in  which  is  situated  a  series  of  cellular,  or 
sac-like  appendages,  the  mouths  of  which  are  capable 
of  being  closed  by  strong  muscular  bands.  These  cav- 
ities are  the  reservoirs  of  water,  so  often  spoken  of  by 
those  who  have  described  the  habits  of  this  animal. 

When   the  Camel  drinks,  the  muscular  bands  are 

relaxed,  and  the  cells  are  filled  with  the  fluid,  after 

which,  their  mouths  are  closed,  and 

lg'  the   functions   of  the    stomach  are 


performed  as  usual.  When  the 
contents  of  the  stomach  require  to 
be  moistened,  which  is  indicated  by 
a  sense  of  thirst,  the  bands  are  re- 
laxed, and  a  sufficient  quantity  is 
allowed  to  escape.  Fig.  82  repre- 
sents a  portion  of  the  stomach, 
showing  these  appendages  on  a  small 
scale,  with  the  muscular  bands  relaxed. 

It  is  said  that  the  sagacious  animal  when  about  to 
start  on  a  journey  across  the  desert,  which  he  probably 
discovers  by  the  preparations,  distends  these  water 
vessels  to  the  utmost  with  the  precious  fluid,  which 
remains  pure  and  sweet  to  the  end  of  the  journey. 

Water  cells  in  the  Elephant. — It  is  well  known  that 
the  Elephant  has  a  method  of  dislodging  insects  from 
such  parts  of  his  body  as  he  cannot  reach  with  his  trunk, 
by  forcibly  ejecting  a  quantity  of  water  on  them  ;  and 
this  he  does,  though  he  has  drank  no  water  for  several 
hours. 

The  fountain  whence  the  Elephant  obtains  water  for 
this  purpose,  appears  to  have  remained  a  mystery  until 
Sir  E.  Home  discovered  in  the  stomach  of  this  animal  a 
cavity  similar  to  that  of  the  camel,  and  capable  of 

What  is  said  of  the  difference  in  the  stomachs  of  ruminants,  with,  and 
lyithout  horns  1  What  is  said  of  the  water  sacs  of  camels  1 


FOOD  OP  MAN  AND  OTHER  ANIMALS.       128 

holding  about  six  quarts  of  fluid.  This  when  filled  is 
closed  up  by  a  muscular  band,  and  employed  not  only 
for  shooting  at  flies,  but  also  to  moisten  the  contents  of 
the  stomach  if  occasion  requires. 


THE    FOOD    OF    MAN    AND    OTHER    ANIMALS. 

It  is  the  object  of  this  work,  not  only  to  convey  to 
the  minds  of  youth  such  a  knowledge  of  Comparative 
and  Human  Physiology,  as  may  be  useful  to  them  for 
the  common  purposes  of  life ;  but  also  to  instruct  them 
in  the  application  of  these  principles  to  their  own  per- 
sons, so  far  at  least  as  the  functions  of  the  stomach, 
muscles,  and  brain  are  concerned.  With  this  view  it  is 
proposed  here  to  inquire  into  the  subjects  of  food  and 
digestion,  more  particularly  than  we  have  done  ;  what 
we  have  said  of  the  digestive  process  in  man  being  only 
an  introduction  to  what  follows. 

Elements  of  Nutrition. — Chemistry  has  taught  us 
that  the  most  important  principles  of  diet,  derived  from 
animal  substances  are  fibrin,  albumen,  jelly,  osmawme, 
and  oil.  Fibrin  is  the  muscular  fibre,  composing  the 
lean  parts  of  all  meats  ;  albumen,  or  coagulable  lymph 
composes  a  part  of  the  blood,  and  is  abundant  in  the 
animal  system,  The  white  of  an  egg  is  nearly  pure 
albumen  ;  jelly  and  oil  need  no  description ;  osmazome 
is  a  peculiar  juice,  or  extractive  matter,  which  is  not 
coagulable  by  heat,  and  on  which  the  flavor  of  different 
meats  depends.  It  probably  consists  of  a  portion  of  the 
fibrin  slightly  altered  by  the  heat. 

Food,  Nutritive  and  Digestible. — Articles  of  food  may 
be  considered  in  two  respects,  viz.  as  nutritive  and 
digestible.  Substances  are  nutritive  in  proportion  to 
their  capacity  to  yield  the  elements  of  chyle  ;  they  are 
digestible  in  proportion  to  the  facility  with  which  they 
are  acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice.  Between  these  two 

What  are  the  nutritive  parts  of  animals  1  What  is  albumen  1  What 
is  osmazome'?  In  what  proportion  are  substances  nutritive  1  In  what 
proportion  are  they  digestible  ? 


124  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

properties  there  is  an  essential  difference  in  the  articles 
usually  employed  in  diet.  Some  substances  which  con- 
tain the  elements  of  chyle  in  abundance  afford  little 
nutriment  because  they  do  not  readily  go  through  the 
digestive  process  ;  while  others  which  contain  compara- 
tively but  a  small  quantity  of  these  elements,  afford 
more  nourishment,  because  they  are  more  completely 
dissolved  by  the  gastric  juice.  Animals  in  the  natural 
state  adhere  with  remarkable  uniformity  to  the  same 
kinds  of  food.  There  are  many  carnivorous  animals 
which  feed  only  on  a  certain  kind  of  flesh ;  some  upon 
the  flesh  of  quadrupeds  ;  others  upon  that  of  birds  ;  and 
others  again  upon  that  of  insects.  Among  herbivorous 
animals,  some  subsist  only  on  certain  kinds  of  plants  ; 
others  on  certain  parts  of  particular  plants,  as  the  seed, 
the  fruit,  the  leaves,  and  so  on,  while  entire  tribes  of 
insects  appear  to  be  exclusively  attached  to  some  one 
species  of  vegetable  matter. 

We  have  seen  that  there  is  a  manifest  connection 
between  the  substances  on  which  animals  feed  and  the 
structure  of  their  masticating  organs,  indicating  that  the 
selection  is  not  the  effect  of  accident,  but  depends  on 
the  original  conformation  of  the  parts.  Thus,  as  we 
have  already  shown,  the  teeth  of  some  are  constructed 
for  seizing  and  tearing  ;  others  for  gnawing,  arid  others 
only  for  cropping  the  delicate  parts  of  plants.  The 
beaks  and  claws  of  carnivorous  birds,  are  most  formid- 
able weapons ;  while  those  of  the  goose  and  duck  are 
formed  only  for  scooping  and  swimming.  All  these 
diversities  of  structure  are  obviously  adapted  to  receive 
as  great  a  variety  of  food.  We  have  seen  also,  that  the 
stomachs  of  animals  are  of  different  forms  and  capaci- 
ties, and  that  there  is  an  intimate  relation  between 
their  masticating  organs  and  the  powers  of  digestion. 

Man  requires  a  variety  of  Food. — The  structure  of 
our  own  species  as  already  shown,  places  man  between 
the  carnivorous  and  herbivorous  animals  with  respect 

Why  do  not  substances  containing  equal  portions  of  the  elements  of 
chyle  afford  equal  nourishment  1  What  is  said  of  the  adherence  of  ani- 
mals to  the  same  kind  of  food'?  Where  is  man  placed  in  the  scale  of 
creation  with  respect  to  his  food-'? 


a 


POOD  OF  MAN  AND  OTHER  ANIMALS.       125 

to  his  food,  and  therefore  he  has  the  power  of  accommo- 
dating himself  to  a  wider  range,  and  a  greater  variety 
of  nourishment  than  any  other  animal,  and  which  he 
seems  also  to  require. 

For,  while  animals  in  the  natural  state,  of  choice, 
confine  themselves  to  a  particular  kind  of  food,  the 
organization  of  man,  it  would  appear,  makes  it  necessa- 
ry for  him  to  partake  of  a  variety  of  nourishment.  We 
do  not  contend  that  the  stomach  of  man,  or  his  health 
and  vigor,  require  that  he  should  be  an  adept  in  the 
science  of  gastronomy,  and  indulge  in  the  stimulating 
mixtures  of  the  luxurious.  On  the  contrary  the  physi- 
ology of  the  Stomach,  as  well  as  the  known  consequen- 
ces, clearly  prove,  that  the  long  continued  use  of  highly 
stimulating  food,  destroys  the  digestive  functions,  and 
consequently  tends  to  direct  debility,  and  visceral  de- 
rangement. Independently  of  the  use  of  vinous  or 
alcoholic  admixture,  it  is  clearly  proved,  that  a  protract- 
ed use  of  highly  irritating  condiments,  not  only  induce 
general  prostration  of  muscular  power,  but  finally 
exhaust  the  irritability  of  the  digestive  organs,  and  cause 
obstructions  in  other  viscera,  so  as  to  superinduce  a  con- 
dition of  the  whole  system,  which  neither  future  abste- 
miousness, nor  sanative  remedies  can  change,  and  which 
therefore,  must  terminate  in  a  general  dissolution  of  the 
whole. 

But  a  variety  and  admixture  of  nourishment  is  far 
from  involving  an  abuse  of  the  digestive  powers,  and 
that  the  organization  of  our  species  requires  such  a 
variety,  has  been  proved  by  various  and  repeated 
experiments. 

Dr.  Stark's  experiments. — The  fact  last  mentioned  has 
been  strikingly  illustrated  and  abundantly  proved  by  the 
recent  experiments  of  Dr.  Stark,  of  Vienna,  upon  him- 
self. This  zealous  and  self-denying  experimentalist,  in 
order  to  establish  the  physiological  effects  of  various 
kinds  of  diet  on  the  human  system,  confined  himself 

Does  the  organization  of  man  require  a  variety  of  food  or  not  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  continued  use  of  stimulating  condiments  1  What  wen* 
the  experiments  of  Dr.  Stark  7  What  were  the  results  of  these  experi- 
ments i 

11* 


126  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS, 

exclusively  to  a  single  article  of  food*  for  a  certain 
length  of  time  ;  as  bread,  or  milk,  or  meat,  each  of 
which  in  its  turn  was  his  sole  nutriment.  But  the  result 
showed  that  the  system  is  invariably  brought  into  a 
state  of  extreme  debility  by  such  a  course  of  diet,  and 
that  there  is  not  a  single  article  of  food,  not  even  the 
most  nutritious,  that  is  capable  of  sustaining  the  vigor  of 
the  body,  or  of  even  maintaining  life  itself,  for  any  con- 
siderable period  of  time,  at  least  under  ordinary  exer- 
cise. A  lamentable  proof  of  this,  was  exhibited  in  the 
experimenter  above  named,  who  by  confining  himself 
to  a  single  article  of  diet,  for  a  considerable  length  of 
time,  as  already  stated,  finally  so  ruined  his  constitution 
as  to  bring  on  premature  death. 

Dr.  Magendie's  experiments. — Dr.Magendie  of  Paris, 
resumed  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Stark,  so  far  as  to  con- 
fine various  animals  to  a  single  article  of  diet,  which 
although  it  contained  an  abundance  of  nutriment,  was 
not  always  that  on  which  animals  naturally  subsist.  Thus 
dogs,  which  are  in  the  domestic  state,  are  omnivorous  ani- 
mals, when  fed  on  white  sugar  and  water  alone,  soon 
become  emaciated,  lose  their  appetites  and  sight,  and 
perish  for  want  of  nutriment.  If  fed  on  white  bread 
and  water,  the  same  result  follows.  Rabbits,  which  eat 
hay,  cabbage,  corn,  barley,  and  carrots  indiscriminately, 
cannot  live  for  any  length  of  time  when  confined 
exclusively  to  one  of  these  articles. 

It  is  a  curious  and  instructive  fact,  that  when  an  ani- 
mal has  become  emaciated  by  living  on  a  single  article 
of  food,  although  it  will  then  receive  other  kinds  of  food 
with  avidity,  yet  it  does  not  gain  its  strength,  but  con- 
tinues to  waste  away,  and  finally,  dies  at  about  the 
same  time  it  would  have  done,  had  the  exclusive  diet 
been  continued. 

Experiments  of  Sir  A.  Cooper.- — Sir  Astley  Cooper 
has  lately  made  a  variety  of  experiments  on  the  facility 
with  which  many  substances  usually  employed  in  diet 


What  were  the  results  of  Dr.  Magendie's  experiments  on  animals? 
What  fact  is  stated  about  the  inability  of  animals  to  thrive  on  other  food 
after  being  long  confined  to  a-  single  article  ? 


POOD   OF    MAN    AND    OTHER    ANIMALS..  127 

are  digested.  The  result  of  these  inquiries  show  that 
of  the  meats,  pork  is  that  which  passes  most  rapidly 
through  the  digestive  process  ;  next  to  this,  mutton,  then 
veal,  and  lastly,  beef,  which  by  these  experiments,  ap- 
pears to  be  the  least  digestible  food  of  these  four  kinds  of 
meat. 

By  other  experiments,  he  found  that  fish  and  cheese 
are  substances  of  very  easy  digestion,  and  that  the  potato 
passes  through  the  process  with  facility,  though  with  less 
rapidity  than  the  others.  Its  skin  is  entirely  indigestible. 
These  experiments  were  chiefly  made  on  dogs. 

Some  of  these  results  accord  with  the  general  experi- 
ence and  prejudices  of  dyspeptics  and  gastronomies, 
while  others  do  not.  There  is,  however,  a  great  differ- 
ence in  the  action  of  different  stomachs,  which  often 
appears  to  depend  entirely  on  preconceived  opinions 
and  prejudices. 

There  is  an  intimate  connection  between  the  gastric 
organs  and  the  brain,  and  in  consequence  of  which,  an 
opinion  formed  with  respect  to  the  capability  of  the 
stomach  to  digest  a  given  substance,  is  often  found  an 
experiment  to  be  realized.  Let  a  sedentary  dyspeptic, 
for  instance,  get  the  opinion  firmly  rooted  in  his  mind, 
that  he  cannot  digest  pork,  or  beef,  or  white  bread,  or 
any  other  article,  and  let  him  try  by  way  of  experiment 
any  of  these,  and  the  opinion  previously  formed  will 
undoubtedly  be  confirmed. 

On  receiving  such  diet,  the  man  begins  to  examine 
his  feelings  ;  he  places  his  whole  mind  on  his  stomach  ; 
and  whether  it  be  so  or  not,  imagines  the  thing  lies 
heavy,  and  finally  actually  becomes  distressed,  for  fear 
he  should  be  so.  The  consequence  is,  that  the  process 
of  digestion  really  becomes  suspended,  and  this,  on  the 
long  established  and  well  known  principle,  that  fear  and 
anxiety  by  operating  through  the  nervous  system  pro- 
duce universal  debility. 

Dr.  Beaumont's  experiments. — But  the  most  com- 
plete and  satisfactory  series  of  experiments  ever  made 

What  were  the  results  of  Sir  A.  Cooper's  experiments  with  respect  to 
the  digestion  of  different  kinds  of  meat  7  What  is  said  of  the  influence 
of  prejudice  on  digestion  1 


128  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

on  the  subject  of  digestion,  are  those  of  Dr.  Beaumont 
of  the  U.  S.  Army.  The  subject  of  these  experiments 
was  a  man  named  St.  Martin,  who  in  consequence  of 
a  gun-shot  wound  which  perforated  his  stomach,  and 
which  on  healing,  left  an  aperture  into  the  cavity  of  that 
organ,  presented  opportunities  before  unknown,  for  the 
prosecution  of  such  inquiries.  The  aperture  was  situ- 
ated between  the  left  breast  and  the  pit  of  the  stomach, 
and  of  such  size  as  to  enable  the  experimenter  to  intro- 
duce various  substances,  and  to  examine  the  food,  taken 
in  the  usual  manner,  at  any  time  during  the  process  of 
digestion.  This  was  done  without  pain  to  the  subject, 
who  remained,  with  the  exception  of  his  wound,  a  sound 
and  healthy  man,  performing  all  the  duties  of  a  com- 
mon laborer,  with  the  usual  strength  and  facility. 

Nature  had  formed  a  sort  of  valve  which  closed  the 
aperture  from  the  interior  and  which  prevented  the  con- 
tents of  the  stomach  from  escaping,  but  on  pushing  this 
aside  and  placing  the  body  of  the  subject  in  a  certain 
position,  either  the  food  or  gastric  juice  was  obtained 
in  any  desirable  quantity  for  experiment.  A  pint  of 
the  latter  was  sent  to  Europe  for  analysis  and  experi- 
ment. 

The  results  of  Dr.  Beaumont's  inquiries  in  many  in- 
stances do  not  materially  differ  from  those  which  had 
been  made  by  other  philosophers,  but  in  other  instances 
they  vary  considerably  from  any  which  have  heretofore 
been  made  public.  Our  limits  must  confine  us  to  the 
statement  of  only  a  few  of  the  most  important  results 
among  the  great  number  which  the  volume  contains. 

The  experiments  were  made  both  by  means  of  St. 
Martin's  digestive  organ,  and  by  the  gastric  juice  ex- 
tracted and  placed  in  vials,  which  were  kept  at  the  tem- 
perature of  100  degrees. 

Boiled  rice  was  digested  in  the  stomach  in  1  hour, 
while  sago,  tapioca,  barley  and  boiled  milk,  require  2 
hours  and  15  minutes.  Tripe  and  pigs  feet  1  hour. 
Turkey,  roasted  and  boiled,  goose,  pig,  beef's  liver  broil- 
ed, lamb,  and  chicken  were  digested  in  from  2  hours  18 
min.  to  2  hours  45  min.,  so  that  with  respect  to  these 
substances,  it  appears  that  there  is  very  little  choice  as 
to  time.  Eggs,  hard  boiled,  3  L  30  nou,  do.  soft  boiled, 


FOOD    OF    MAN    AND    OTHER    ANIMALS.  129 

3  h.  Custard  baked,  2  h.  45  m.  Codfish,  salted,  and 
boiled,  2  h.  Trout,  salmon,  boiled,  1  h.  30  m.  do.  fried, 
same  time.  Bass,  striped,  3  h.,  flounder  and  catfish, 
each  3  h.  30  m.  Beef  fresh  and  lean,  rare  roasted,  3  h. 
do  dry  roasted,  3  h.  30  m.  Salt  beef  boiled,  2  h.  45  m. 
do.  with  mustard,  2  h.  30  m.  Beef  steak  broiled,  3  h. 
Pork,  fat  and  lean  roasted,  5  h.  15  m.  Pork,  recently 
salted  and  boiled,  4  h.  30  m.  Do.  fried,  4  h.  15  m.  do. 
raw,  3  h.  Mutton  fresh,  roasted,  3  h.  15m.  Veal, 
broiled,  4  h.  Fowls,  domestic,  boiled  and  roasted,  4  L 
Chicken  soup,  3  h. 

Of  vegetables,  wheat  bread  fresh  baked,  required  3 
h.  30  m.  Corn  bread,  3  h.  15  m.  Sponge  cake,  2  h. 
30  m.  Green  corn  and  beans,  3h.  45  m.  Apple  dump- 
ling, boiled,  3  h.  Apples,  sour  and  mellow,  2  h.  Do. 
sweet  and  mellow,  1  h.  30  m.  Parsnips,  boiled,  2  h. 
30  m.  Potatos  boiled,  3  h.  30  m.  Do.  roasted,  2  h. 
30  m.  Cabbage  head  raw,  2  h.  30  m.  Do.  with  vine- 
gar raw.  2  h.  Do.  boiled,  4  h.  30  m. 

With  respect  to  the  experiments  with  the  gastric 
fluid  in  vials,  they  present  little  interest  when  compared 
with  those  made  on  the  living  animal.  We  may  how- 
ever state  that  it  requires  from  three  to  six  times  as  long 
for  the  digestive  solution  to  be  completed  in  this  way  as 
in  the  stomach. 

Among  the  inferences  which  Dr.  Beaumont  draws 
from  all  his  experiments  on  this  subject,  are  the  follow- 
ing. 

1.  That  animal  and  farinaceous  aliments  are  more 
easy  of  digestion  than  vegetables. 

2.  That  digestion  is  facilitated  by  minuteness  of  divis- 
ion and  tenderness  of  fibre.     Hence  the  importance  of 
thorough  mastication  in  case  of  weak  stomachs. 

3.  That  the  ultimate  principles  of  aliment  are  always 
the  same,  from  whatever  kind  of  food  they  may  be  ob- 
tained.    The  chyle  therefore  from  vegetable  and  animal 
food,  consists  of  exactly  the  same  elements,  being  elab- 
orated therefrom  by  the  gastric  action. 

4.  That  the  quantity  of  food  generally  taken  into  the 
stomach  is  greater  than  the  system  requires. 

5.  That  solid  food  of  a  certain  texture,  is  easier  of 
digestion,  than  fluid. 


130  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

6.  That  stimulating  condiments  are  injurious  to  the 
healthy  stomach. 

7.  That  the  continued  use  of  ardent  spirits  always 
produces  disease  of  the  stomach. 

8.  That  hunger  is  the  effect  of  distention  of  the  ves- 
sels that  secrete  the  gastric  juice. 

9.  That  the  temperature  of  the  stomach  is  100°  of 
Fahrenheit. 

10.  That  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice  dissolves  the 
food  and  alters  its  properties. 

11.  That  the  gastric  liquor  coagulates  albumen,  and 
afterwards  dissolves  the  coagula. 

12.  That  the  gastric  juice  is  a  clear  and  transparent 
fluid,  a  little    salt  and  perceptibly  acid  to   the  taste. 
When  pure,  it  suffers   no   change   by   keeping.      Dr. 
Beaumont  having  kept  a  quantity  in  a  vial  for  eleven 
months  without  any  perceptible  change. 

13.  That  gentle  exercise  facilitates  the  digestion  of 
the  food. 

14.  That  water,  ardent  spirits,  and  most  other  fluids 
are  not  affected  by  the  gastric  juice,  but  disappear  from 
the  stomach  soon  after  they  are  received. 

It  may  be  noticed  that  there  is  some  discrepancy  be- 
tween Dr.  Beaumont's  results  and  those  of  Sir  A.  Coop- 
er, especially  with  respect  to  the  digestion  of  Pork  and 
Beef.  But  since  the  former  experimenter  had  the  best 
opportunity  ever  afforded  to  arrive  at  true  results,  while 
those  of  the  latter  were  made  chiefly  on  dogs,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  which  is  the  most  deserving  of  confidence. 

The  facts  above  stated  are  so  plain  as  to  allow  any 
one  to  draw  his  own  inferences,  and  we  therefore  leave 
this  subject  to  the  reader,  which  has  already  been  car- 
ried to  an  extent  much  beyond  what  was  originally  in- 
tended. 


PART    IV. 


VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 


CIRCULATION    OF    THE    BLOOD. 

IT  is  but  recently,  that  movements  in  the  fluids  of  in- 
sects analagous  to  the  circulation  in  the  larger  animals 
has  been  discovered.  At  the  present  time  however,  all 
naturalists  agree  that  such  a  circulation  does  exist. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  insects  are  entirely  with- 
out lungs,  and  that  the  respiratory  function  is  carried  on 
in  them  by  means  of  minute  tubes  on  each  side  of  their 
bodies  called  spiracles  or  stigmata. 

Along  the  backs  of  insects  there  is  a  tubular  organ, 
called  the  dorsal  vessel.  This  extends  the  whole  length 
of  the  back,  and  is  found  in  every  stage  of  their  devel- 
opement,  from  the  larva  to  the  perfect  state.  It  con- 
tains a  fluid  which  appears  to  have  a  wave-like  motion, 
backwards  and  forwards,  by  the  alternate  contractions 
and  dilations  of  the  muscles  of  the  vessel,  producing  a 
kind  of  pulsation. 

This  organ  performs  the  office  of  the  hearts  of  other 
animals,  its  contractions  throwing  out  a  portion  of  the 
fluid  it  contains,  into  all  parts  of  the  insect,  even  into  its 
wings,  from  which  it  again  returns  to  the  dorsal  vessel, 
as  the  blood  does  to  the  heart. 

In  some  insects,  whose  bodies  are  transparent,  the 
whole  circulation  may  be  distinctly  seen  by  means  of  a 
microscope. 


132  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

In  the  Ephemera  marginata,  a  little  four-winged  fly. 
the  motions  of  the  fluid  are  quite  distinct,  and  the  course 
it  takes  is  represented  by  Fig.  83,  the  direction  of  its 

Fig.  83. 


movements  being  indicated  by  the  arrows.  The  black 
line  along  the  back  is  the  dorsal  vessel ;  a,  representing 
the  currents  in  the  antennae,  w,  in  the  wings,  and  t,  in 
the  tail.  In  all  these  parts  the  vessels  form  loops  deri- 
ved from  the  main  vessels  of  the  trunk.  The  currents 
of  blood  are  unequal  in  their  motions,  being  accelera- 
ted by  the  impulsions  they  receive  from  the  contractions 
of  the  dorsal  vessel,  which  as  we  have  already  noticed 
is  the  substitute  for  a  heart  in  these  animals. 


CIRCULATION  IN  THE  AMPHIBIA  AND  FISHES. 

The  most  simple  apparatus  for  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  in  an  air  breathing  animal,  consists  of  a  single 
auricle,  a  single  ventricle,  with  two  arteries,  and  two 
veins,  or  rather  with  a  single  artery  and  vein  divided  into 
two  trunks  each. 

Circulation  in  the  Frog. — These  parts  are  represent- 
ed as  they  exist  in  the  Frog,  by  Fig.  84,  where  d,  is  the 
auricle,  e,  the  ventricle,  a,  the  large  artery,  which  divides 
and  sends  a  branch  to  r ;  c,  the  great  vein  called  the 
vena  cava,  which  like  the  great  artery,  divides  and  also 

Explain  the  course  of  the  circulation  as  it  takes  place  in  insects? 


CIRCULATION  IN  THE  AMPHIBIA  AND  FISHES.         133 


Fig.  84. 


sends  a  branch  to  r.  The  arrows  show  the  course  of 
the  circulation.  The  blood  flows  into  the  auricle  d, 
from  the  vein  c,  which  comes  from  all  parts  of  the 
body,  except  the  lungs.  It  also  flows  through  the  vein 
m,  which  comes  from  the  lungs,  and  is  called  the  pulmo- 
nary vein.  Both  these  vessels 
deliver  the  blood  in  a  continued 
stream.  When  the  auricle  is  full 
of  blood,  it  contracts  and  throws 
its  contents  into  the  ventricle  e, 
The  ventricle  then  contracts  and 
sends  a  part  of  the  blood  through 
the  pulmonary  artery  n,  to  the 
\\a  lungs,  while  the  other,  and  greater 
|  portion  passes  through  the  aorta, 
a,  to  all  the  other  parts  of  the 
system.  While  the  blood  is  thus 
flowing  through  the  large  vessels, 
near  the  heart,  it  is  constantly 
passing  from  the  small  arteries 
into  the  small  veins,  which  com- 
municate with  each  other  in 
every  part  of  the  body,  as  shown 
at  b  and  r.  These  little  veins  form  branches  which 
grow  larger,  as  they  approach  the  heart,  as  those  of  the 
arteries  grow  smaller  as  they  recede  from  it,  in  the 
same  manner  that  the  limbs  of  a  tree  are  enlarged  as 
they  approach  the  root,  and  lessened  towards  the  top. 
The  circulating  fluid  being  thus  collected  from  all  parts 
of  the  system,  is  constantly  pouring  into  the  auricle  by 
the  great  veins,  to  be  again  sent  to  all  its  parts,  by  the 
ventricle,  and  so  on,  in  a  continued  round  during  the  life 
of  the  animal. 

This  simple,  or  single  apparatus  is  not  only  such  as  is 
found  in  the  Frog,  but  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of 
the  circulating  system  in  all  the  cold  blooded  quadru- 
peds. 

Explain  the  circulation  as  it  occurs  in  the  most  simple  form,  pointing 
out  the  names  of  the  different  parts  of  the  apparatus,  and  showing  th« 
course  of  the  blood?  To  what  class  of  animals  does  this  simple  circu- 
lation apply  ? 

12 


134 


VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 


On  inspecting  the  plan,  Fig.  84,  it  may  be  remarked 
that  in  these  animals  only  one  half  of  the  blood  is  sent 
to  the  lungs  before  it  again  circulates  through  the  gene- 
ral system.  The  general  circulation,  therefore,  consists 
of  one-half  arterial,  and  one  half  venous  blood.  We 
shall  see  directly  that  in  the  warm  blooded  animals  the 
circulation  is  double,  and  that  in  these,  all  the  blood  is 
sent  through  the  lungs,  to  be  aerated  or  exposed  to  the 
influence  of  the  atmosphere,  before  it  is  thrown  into  the 
general  circulation.  It  will  be  seen  also,  that  the  tem- 
perature and  vivacity  of  the  latter  class,  depend  on  the 
exposure  of  the  whole  mass  of  blood,  to  the  influence 
of  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  as  it  passes  the  lungs. 

It  is  owing  chiefly  to  this  limited  circulation  that 
amphibious  animals  are  so  remarkably  distinguished 
from  others.  They  are  not  only  cold  blooded,  but  most 
of  them  are  sluggish,  languid,  and  exceedingly  tenacious 
of  life,  so  that  they  will  not  only  bear  the  strongest 
stimulants  without  injury,  but  may  have  their  limbs 
amputated  with  only  slight  marks  of  pain. 

Circulation  in  Fishes. — In  Fishes  the  organs  of  circu- 
lation consist  of  four  cavities,  c, 
d,  e,f,  Fig.  85,  with  a  system  of 
veins  and  arteries  for  conveying 
the  blood  to,  and  from  the  heart. 
Of  these  cavities,  d,  is  the  auricle, 
fii  and  e,  the  ventricle,  c,  and  f, 
being  dilations  of  the  principal 
vein  and  artery,  at  their  junction 
with  the  heart.  The  heart,  in 
this  system,  belongs  exclusively 
to  the  gills  or  branchia,  which  in 
Fish  are  the  organs  of  respira- 
tion. There  is  no  aorta  procee- 
ding from  the  heart,  which  car- 
ries the  blood  to  all  parts  of  the 
system,  as  in  other  animals. 
The  branchial  arteries/,  convey 

What  kind  of  blood  circulates  through  the  systems  of  amphibious 
animals  1  To  what  cause  is  the  coldness  and  languor  of  these  animals 
owing  ?  Which  is  the  auricle  and  which  the  ventricle  in  the  heart  of  a 
fish* 


Fig.  85. 


CIRCULATION    IN    WARM    BLOODED    ANIMALS.         135 

ths  blood  to  the  gills,  g,  h.  There  it  is  aerated,  or  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  which  the  water  contains.  It  is  then 
collected  by  the  branchial  veins  i,  which,  instead  of 
carrying  it  directly  to  the  heart,  as  in  man,  unite  into  a 
single  large  trunk  «,  which  passes  down  the  back,  and 
performs  the  office  of  the  aorta,  by  distributing  it  to  the 
different  parts  of  the  body.  The  circulating  fluid  is 
then  conveyed  to  the  auricle  d,  by  the  large  vein  c,  which 
answers  to  the  vena  cava.  The  blood  then  passes  into 
the  ventricle  and  begins  its  circulation  as  before. 

In  Fishes  the  heart  is  exceedingly  small  when  com- 
pared to  that  of  other  animals  of  the  same  bulk,  its 
weight  being  only  to  that  of  the  body,  as  1  to  351,  or 
even  1  to  768  in  the  different  species ;  while  in  man 
the  weight  of  the  heart  is  to  that  of  the  body,  as  1  to 
about  160. 

The  proportion  of  blood  in  this  class  is  also  very 
small,  and  the  vessels  few  in  number.  The  quantity  of 
oxygen  likewise,  which  Fishes  obtain,  being  only  that 
contained  in  the  air  of  the  water,  must  be  exceedingly 
minute.  Hence  it  is,  that  their  flesh  is  white,  presenting 
a  remarkable  contrast  to  the  red  color  of  that  of  ani- 
mals belonging  to  the  higher  orders,  as  quadrupeds  and 
man. 


CIRCULATION    IN    WARM    BLOODED    ANIMALS. 

In  proportion  as  animals  rise  in  the  scale  of  organiza- 
tion and  capacity,  so  does  the  complexity  of  the  appa- 
ratus for  carrying  on  the  circulation  increase. 

Amphibious  animals  and  fish,  as  just  shown,  are  pro- 
vided with  a  single  auricle,  and  a  single  ventricle  only. 
But  in  all  warm  blooded  animals  there  are  two  auricles 
and  two  ventricles,  and  two  systems  of  circulation.  In 
the  first,  the  heart  is  single  ;  in  the  last,  it  is  double  ; 
one  being  for  the  circulation  through  the  lungs,  called 
the  pulmonic ;  the  other  for  the  general  circulation, 
called  the  systematic.  The  pulmonic  is  on  the  right 
side ;  the  systematic  on  the  left. 

What  office  does  the  heart  perform  in  the  fish  7  What  is  said  of  the 
size  of  the  heart  in  fish  1  What  is  the  difference  between  the  heart  of  a 
fish  and  that  of  a  quadruped  1 


136 


VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 


Fig.  86. 


The  two  hearts  separated. — The  two  hearts  in  the 
natural  state  are  joined  together,  but  that  the  student 
may  the  more  clearly  comprehend  the  two  systems, 
they  are  here  represented  separate,  Fig.  86. 

In  this  plan,  d  repre- 
sents the  right  auricle ;  e, 
the  right  ventricle  ;  k,  the 
left  auricle ;  /,  the  left 
ventricle  ;  a,  the  aorta  ;  i, 
the  pulmonary  veins ;  f, 
the  pulmonary  arteries ; 
c,  the  vena  cava ;  b,  the 
^  meeting  of  the  small  bran- 
ches of  the  aorta,  and  ve- 
na cava,  and  7^,  the  meet- 
ing of  the  pulmonary 
veins  and  arteries. 

The  circulation  is  as  fol- 
lows. The  blood  is  con- 
veyed by  the  vena  cava,  c, 
to  the  right  auricle,  d,  and 
poured  into  the  ventricle, 
e9  which  contracting,  throws  it  through  the  pulmonary 
artery,/,  to  the  lungs,  where  it  is  oxygenated,  or  purifi- 
ed and  made  fit  for  general  circulation.  The  pulmonary 
veins  then  receive,  and  convey  it  to  the  left  auricle,  A, 
by  which  it  is  transmitted  to  the  ventricle,  Z,  which  con- 
tracting with  great  power,  propels  it  to  all  parts  of  the 
system  through  the  aorta  a.  From  the  small  branches 
of  the  aorta,  it  is  received  into  those  of  the  vena  cava, 
by  which  it  is  transmitted  to  the  right  auricle,  the  point 
where  we  commenced.  In  all  the  Mammalia  and 
Birds,  this  is  the  routine  of  the  circulation. 

The  two  Hearts  united. — It  only  now  remains  to  show 
the  two  hearts  of  man  united,  that  the  pupil  may  observe 
how  they  naturally  exist  as  a  single  organ  in  external  ap- 
pearance. Fig.  87  represents  the  double  heart,  show- 


What  are  the  two  systems  of  circulation  in  quadrupsds  and  man 
called  1    Describe  the  circulation  in  man. 


CIRCULATION   IN    WARM    BLOODED    ANIMALS.         137 

ing  the  several  parts  as  they  actually  exist.     The  upper 
a,  shows  the  pulmonary  vein,  the  lower  «,  the  vena  cava ; 

Fig.  87. 


b,  b,  the  right  and  left  auricles  ;  c,  c,  the  right  and  left 
ventricles ;  e,  e,  the  right  and  left  branches  of  the  pul- 
monary artery ;  d,  d,  the  aorta. 

But  notwithstanding  the  two  hearts  are  thus  united 
within  a  single  envelope,  the  right  and  left  cavities  are 
perfectly  distinct  from  each  other  as  represented  by  Fig. 
86 ;  the  two  ventricles  having  between  them  a  strong 
muscular  partition,  which  allows  of  no  communication 
from  one  side  to  the  other. 

In  the  lower  orders  of  animals,  as  already  shown,  the 
circulating  fluid  is  composed  of  one  half  venous  blood, 
or  blood  which  has  not  passed  through  the  purifying 
and  renovating  influence  of  the  lungs.  In  the  heart  just 
described,  the  two  systems  of  circulation  are  so  separat- 
ed as  to  entirely  prevent  the  two  kinds  of  blood  from 
mixing  with  each  other. 

The  color  of  the  arterial  blood  is  light  red,  while 
that  of  the  veins  is  dark  purple.  This  change  is  pro- 
duced by  the  exposure  of  the  venous  blood  to  the  air  in 
its  passage  through  the  lungs,  by  which  it  either  loses 

Are  the  pulmonic  and  systematic  circulation  perfectly  distinct  in  the 
warm  blooded  animals  1  What  is  the  color  of  arterial  blood  ?  What 
is  the  color  of  venous  blood?  How  is  this  change  of  color  produced? 


138  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

a  portion  of  carbon,  or  absorbs  a  quantity  of  oxygen,  as 
will  be  seen  when  we  come  to  treat  of  respiration. 

The  two  Hearts  act  together. — With  respect  to  the 
time  at  which  the  two  hearts  act,  there  is  the  most  won- 
derful precision  and  order.  The  blood  which  returns 
from  the  systematic,  and  that  from  the  pulmonic  circu- 
lation, the  first  through  the  vena  cava,  and  the  other 
through  the  pulmonary  veins,  both  fill  their  respective 
auricles  at  the  same  moment,  so  that  their  contractions 
are  simultaneous ;  and  in  like  manner  the  ventricles 
throw  their  contents,  the  one  to  the  lungs,  and  the  other 
to  the  whole  system  at  the  same  instant.  So  that  while 
the  left  ventricle  is  propelling  the  purified  fluid  to  all 
parts  of  the  body  to  renovate  its  powers,  the  right  ven- 
tricle is  throwing  the  vitiated  blood  to  the  lungs  to  pre- 
pare it  for  the  same  office.  Thus  the  same  blood,  which 
during  the  interval  of  one  pulsation  was  moving  through 
the  lungs,  is  at  the  next  circulating  through  the  body. 

Number  of  Pulsations,  and  Muscular  power  of  the 
Heart. — The  ventricle  of  the  human  heart  contains  only 
about  an  ounce  of  blood,  but  this  is  changed  more  than 
sixty  times  every  minute.  Estimating  the  number  of 
contractions  at  70  per  minute,  which  is  about  the  me- 
dium number  in  health,  then  the  quantity  of  blood  which 
passes  through  the  heart  is  about  300  pounds  every  hour 
of  our  lives,  making  upwards  of  three  tons  in  each  24 
hours. 

"  An  anatomist,"  says  Paley,  "  who  understood  the 
structure  of  the  heart,  might  say  beforehand  that  it  would 
play ;  but  he  would  expect  from  the  delicacy  of  some 
of  its  parts,  and  the  complexity  of  its  mechanism,  that 
it  would  always  be  liable  to  derangement,  or  that  it 
would  soon  work  itself  out,  yet  does  this  wonderful  ma- 
chine go  on,  night  and  day,  for  eighty,  nay,  an  hundred 
years  together,  at  the  rate  of  an  hundred  thousand 
strokes  every  24  hours,  having  at  every  stroke  a  great 
resistance  to  overcome,  and  will  continue  this  action,  for 

In  what  order  do  the  two  ventricles  of  the  heart  act  1  What  different 
offices  do  the  two  ventricles  possess  1  How  much  blood  passes  through 
the  heart  every  24  hours  7 


CIRCULATION    IN    WARM    BLOODED    ANIMALS.          139 

this  length  of  time,  without  disorder  and  without  weari- 
ness. To  those  who  venture  their  lives  in  ships,  it  has 
often  been  said,  that  there  is  only  a  plank  between  them 
and  destruction ;  but  in  the  body,  and  especially  in  the 
arterial  system,  there  is  in  many  parts  only  a  membrane, 
a  skin,  a  thread." 

Effects  of  Alcohol  on  the  circulation. — We  may  sup- 
pose, says  Dr.  Barry  that  the  more  quick  the  motion  of 
the  blood,  the  sooner  old  age  will  advance,  or  the  soon- 
er the  machine  will  wear  out,  and  other  circumstances 
being  equal,  that  the  number  of  years  which  all  men 
may  attain,  will  be  in  reciprocal  ratio  to  the  velocity  of 
their  pulses.  If  we  allow  70  years  to  be  the  age  of 
man,  and  sixty  pulses  in  a  minute,  for  the  common  meas- 
ure of  a  temperate  man,  then  we  should  have  2,209,032, 
000,  as  the  number  of  pulsations  during  his  life.  But  if 
another,  by  reason  of  intemperance  forces  his  blood 
into  motion  at  the  rate  of  75  pulses  in  a  minute,  then  in- 
stead of  living  three  score  and  ten  years,  he  will  run 
through  his  whole  number  of  pulsations  in  56  years, 
thus  cutting  short  his  days  by  the  term  of  14  years. 

Barry  on  Digestion,  London,  1759. 

This  is  certainly  a  sober  consideration,  and  ought  to 
be  carefully  weighed  by  those  who  urge  along  the  cur- 
rent of  their  blood  by  mixing  it  with  alcohol,  for  as  we 
have  already  seen,  this  liquid  is  taken  into  the  blood  in 
the  same  state  in  which  it  goes  into  the  stomach,  the 
gastric  liquid  having  no  power  to  change  it  into  nourish- 
ment. The  circulating  fluid  of  him  who  drinks  distilled 
spirits  though  it  be  mixed  with  water,  is  therefore  a  com- 
pound of  blood  and  alcohol,  which  stimulating  the  left 
ventricle  and  making  it  contract  with  unwonted  rapid- 
ity, increases  the  number  of  pulsations  and  exhausting 
the  irritability,  produces  a  weak  and  flabby  condition  of 
the  machinery,  which  finally  refuses  to  perform  its  func- 
tions, the  miserable  possessor  sinks  down  and  dies  be- 
fore his  time. 


to 


What  is  said  concerning  the  quickness  of  the  pulse'and  the  age  to  which 
a  man  may  live!  How  much  is  it  supposed  that  a  person  may  shorten 
his  days  by  quickening  his  pulse  five  times  a  minute  by  stimulants  1  IB 
alcohol  digestible  or  not  ?  What  is  the  composition  of  one's  blood  who 
drinks  spirits  1 


140  VITAL   FUNCTIONS. 

Alcohol  not  the  product  of  distillation. — It  was  once 
supposed  that  the  chemical  changes  which  any  ferment- 
ed liquor  undergoes  to  produce  alcohol,  took  place 
only  when  it  was  heated,  and  that  thus  alcohol  was  the 
product  of  distillation.  This  supposition,  though  long 
since  exploded  by  the  light  which  analytical  chemistry 
has  thrown  on  the  subject  of  the  composition  of  bodies, 
is  still  maintained  by  the  ignorant.  Thus  it  was  said 
that  the  juice  of  the  grape,  by  the  vinous  fermentation 
merely,  never  produced  alcohol,  and  therefore  if  a  wine 
could  be  obtained  and  kept,  without  any  admixture  of 
brandy,  we  should  have  a  liquor  free  from  the  former 
pernicious  element.  Acting,  perhaps  entirely,  on  this 
belief,  several  importers  sent  to  their  foreign  corres- 
pondents to  have  wine  manufactured  without  the  addi- 
tion of  brandy,  and  thus  the  country  was  furnished  with 
a  wine  which  many  people  believe  contains  no  alcohol ; 
and  not  a  few,  who  on  no  account  would  touch  a  drop 
of  common  wine,  do  not  hesitate  to  take  freely  of  this. 
It  is  not  a  little  surprising,  by  the  way,  that  such  do  not 
find  by  the  cheering  effects,  that  this  wine  contains  alco- 
hol as  well  as  that  made  in  the  usual  manner,  with  which 
it  is  well  known  a  certain  portion  of  brandy  is  mixed. 
This  is  done  under  the  impression  that  the  juice  of  the 
grape  does  not  naturally  produce  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
alcohol  to  preserve  the  wine,  and  therefore  without  the 
addition  of  a  little  brandy,  or  alchohol  in  some  other 
form,  the  vinous,  would  run  into  the  acetous  fermenta- 
tion, and  thus,  that  the  wine  would  become  vinegar. 
With  respect  to  certain  light  wines  this  is  true,  but  ex- 
perience appears  to  have  proved  that  there  is  a  differ- 
ence in  grapes  in  this  respect,  and  that  some  kinds  of 
wine  do  not  require  any  addition  of  alcohol  for  their 
preservation,  that  which  the  juice  produces  being  amply 
sufficient  for  this  purpose. 

Now  this  is  not  the  place  to  go  into  a  history  of  this 
subject,  and  we  have  made  this  digression,  merely  for 
the  purpose  of  showing  those  who  still  maintain  that 
alcohol  is  the  product  of  distillation,  and  that  therefore 
he  who  drinks  the  pure  juice  of  the  grape,  drinks  no  al- 
cohol, labors,  or  rather  drinks  under  a  mistake,  and  that 
he  who  receives  into  his  stomach  this  kind  of  wine, 


CIRCULATION    IN    WARM    BLOODED    ANIMALS.  141 

urges  forward  his  circulation,  and  increases  the  number 
of  his  pulsations,  equally  with  him  who  takes  any  other 
kind  of  wine  containing  the  same  proportion  of  alcohol. 
For,  in  respect  to  the  intoxicating  effects,  it  makes  no 
difference  whether  the  alcohol  be  the  natural  product 
of  the  grape,  or  whether  it  is  added  in  the  form  of 
brandy. 

That  alcohol  is  the  product  of  the  vinous  fermenta- 
tion only,  and  that  it  exists  in  all  fermented  liquors,  be- 
fore they  are  heated,  or  distilled,  and  therefore  that  it  is 
not  produced,  but  only  obtained  in  a  separate  state  by 
distillation,  is  shown  by  the  fact,  that  it  can  be  separated 
from  wine,  cider,  beer,  or  any  other  fermented  liquor 
by  several  processes  in  which  no  heat,  above  the  ordina- 
ry temperature  of  the  atmosphere  is  employed. 

The  author  of  this  work  about  six  years  since,  made 
a  series  of  experiments  on  many  kinds  of  fermented 
liquors,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  percentage 
of  alcohol  which  might  be  obtained  from  them  without 
heat ;  and  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  desire  to  satisfy 
themselves  on  this  point,  he  will  state  in  few  words, 
how  they  can  do  so.  Take  a  glass  tube,  say  two  feet 
long,  and  half  fill  it  with  cider,  or  wine,  to  which  it  is 
known  no  alcohol  has  been  added.  Then  drop  into  the 
tube  some  carbonate  of  potash,  previously  well  dried  by 
heat,  and  continue  to  do  so  until  all  the  water  of  the 
cider  or  wine  is  absorbed  by  the  potash,  and  the  alcohol 
rises  to  the  surface.  This  will  be  known  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  alcohol  and  its  separation  from  the  wa- 
ter at  the  upper  part  of  the  tube.  The  liquor  thus  ob- 
tained, may  be  tested  by  burning,  or  in  any  other  way 
most  satisfactory  to  the  experimenter.  This  simple 
method  is  merely  intended  for  those  who  desire  to  satis- 
fy themselves  whether  alcohol  is  the  product  of  distilla- 
tion, or  not,  the  percentage  requiring  a  more  careful 
analysis,  though  precisely  on  the  same  principles. 

Alcohol  may  also  be  obtained  from  a  fermented  liquor, 
by  exhausting  the  air  from  its  surface  by  means  of  an 
air  pump,  in  consequence  of  which  the  alcohol  being 
lighter  than  the  other  ingredients  of  the  liquor  will  rise 
to  the  surface. 

By  means  of  the  potash,  the  author  found  that  a  sam- 


142  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

pie  of  the  pure  juice  of  the  grape  contained   about  14 
per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

Muscular  force  of  the  Heart. — Some  of  the  old 
physiologists  attempted  to  compute  in  numbers,  the  force 
of  the  muscular  contractions  of  the  heart,  but  this  ap- 
pears to  be  impracticable,  and  if  it  could  be  done,  would 
present  a  mere  physiological  curiosity.  That  the  heart 
contracts  with  an  enormous  power,  when  compared 
with  its  size  as  a  muscle,  there  is  no  doubt.  The  obsta- 
cles it  has  to  overcome  in  dilating  the  contractile  tenden- 
cy of  the  arteries  through  all  their  ramifications,  must 
alone  require  a  very  considerable  force.  It  must  be 
remembered,  that  it  requires  a  much  greater  mechani- 
cal force  to  propel  a  fluid  through  an  angular  or  tortuous 
tube  than  through  a  straight  one  ;  and  that  few  of  the 
arteries  run  in  a  direct  course,  many  of  them  making  a 
full  semi-circle  in  passing  from  the  heart  to  the  other 
parts  of  the  system.  This  may  be  observed  on  view- 
ing the  plans  of  the  heart,  where  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
great  circle  of  the  aorta  must  materially  impede  the  ve- 
locity of  the  blood  through  it.  But  notwithstanding 
these  obstacles,  we  find  that  the  force  of  the  blood 
through  the  arteries,  even  in  the  extremities,  is  so  great, 
that  when  we  sit  cross-legged,  the  pulsation  of  the  artery 
in  the  ham,  which  is  pressed  by  the  under  knee,  is  so 
strong  as  to  raise  the  whole  extremity,  and  give  it  a  vibra- 
tory motion  at  each  beat  of  the  heart.  When  we  consider 
the  length  of  the  lever,  the  shortness  of  the  purchase, 
and  the  elastic  nature  of  the  fulcrum,  we  cannot  but  be 
astonished  at  the  prodigious  force  with  which  the  heart 
must  contract,  in  order  to  give  such  power,  at  such  a 
distance,  to  a  little  artery  not  larger  than'a  pipe  stem. 

Operative  surgeons  are  well  aware  of  this  contractile 
force,  when  they  have  to  do  with  wounded  arteries,  for 
in  most  cases  it  is  found  that  compression  is  entirely  in- 
adequate to  bring  the  sides  of  an  artery  into  such  con- 
tact as  to  stop  the  bleeding,  and  even  ligatures,  if  not 

What  is  said  of  the  power  with  which  the  heart  contracts?  What 
proofs  are  given  of  this  contractile  power  1 


RESPIRATION.  143 

very  carefully  tied,  are  no  security  against  the  impetus 
of  the  blood. 


RESPIRATION. 

Respiration  or  breathing,  is  the  act  of  receiving  a 
portion  of  air  into,  and  throwing  it  out  of  the  lungs. 
Receiving  the  air,  is  called  inspiration,  and  rejecting  it, 
expiration. 

Atmospheric  air  is  so  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
organized  creation,  that  neither  plant  nor  animal  can 
live  without  it.  No  vegetable  seed  will  germinate 
without  a  portion  of  air,  nor  will  the  eggs  of  insects 
change  into  larvae  if  confined  in  a  vacuum. 

Even  the  most  minute  animals,  and  those  which  are 
most  tenacious  of  life,  as  the  infusoria,  which  may  be 
dried  and  kept  any  length  of  time,  and  revived  again  by 
moistening,  are  still  unable  long  to  survive  when  depri- 
ved entirely  of  air. 

It  is  true  that  a  great  proportion  of  animals  are  so 
constructed  as  to  require  but  a  very  minute  portion  of 
air.  Thus  the  Mollusca,  and  Fish,  which  live  constantly 
under  water,  can  only  receive  that  with  which  the  fluid 
is  mixed.  But  the  Creator  has  ampiy  provided  for  the 
wants  of  these  creatures  in  this  respect,  by  giving  the 
fluid  in  which  they  live,  the  power  and  propensity  to 
absorb  air,  so  that  water  in  its  natural  state,  at  whatever 
depth  from  the  surface  it  may  be  taken,  is  always  found 
to  contain  a  portion.  But  if  the  water  in  which  a  fish 
is  confined  be  covered  with  oil,  by  which,  the  air  is 
entirely  excluded,  the  fish  soon  dies. 

As  we  ascend  in  the  scale  of  organization,  we  find 
that  animals  require  more  and  more  air,  and  that  they 
increase  in  vivacity  and  power  in  some  proportion  to 
the  quantity  which  they  consume.  In  the  very  lowest 
orders  there  is  no  provision  of  any  special  organs  for 
respiration.  Thus  in  some  of  the  Zoophytes  the  organs 
of  nutriment  and  those  of  respiration  are  the  same.  In 

What  is  meant  by  respiration  ?  What  is  said  of  the  necessity  of  air 
to  plants  and  animals  ?  Where  do  fish  obtain  air  1  What  is  the  differ- 
ence between  the  lower  and  higher  orders  with  respect  to  air  ? 


144  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

others,  this  function  is  performed  by  the  skin.  But  in 
those  which  are  a  step  above  these,  we  find  some  special 
preparations  for  this  function.  In  the  Mollusca,  the 
organs  of  respiration  are  situated  near  the  outer  margin 
of  the  shell,  and  consist  of  parallel  filaments  arranged 
like  the  teeth  of  a  fine  comb.  These  are  called  branchia 
or  gills. 

Respiration  of  the  Oyster. — These  organs  are  repre- 
Fig.  88. 


sented  by  Fig.  88.  Their  mechanism  when  closely  ex- 
amined  is  exceedingly  curious,  and  somewhat  intricate. 
There  is  a  triangular  canal  d,  which  leads  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  organ  where  it  is  attached  to  the 
body.  By  means  of  this,  the  water  is  admitted  to  the 
interior  of  the  gills  generally.  Besides  this  provision 
for  the  admission  of  water,  by  a  sort  of  canal,  there  are 
numerous  small  apertures,  e,  by  which  the  fluid  is  sent 
to  every  feather  of  the  gills.  The  parts  f  /,  are  the 
feathery  extremities  of  this  organ,  which  appear  like  a 
treble  fold  of  some  fine  fabric,  suspended  like  a  festoon. 

After  the  water,  thus  admitted  into  the  branchia  has 
performed  its  office  of  aeration,  it  is  again  expelled  by 
a  different  opening. 

Another  step  in  the  scale  of  animal  existence  brings 
us  to  the  Fishes,  the  branchial  apparatus  of  which  is 
much  more  complicated  and  important  than  that  of  the 
mollusca.  In  these,  the  respiratory  action  is  more  essen- 

What  are  the  respiratory  organs  called  in  the  mollusca  and 
How  is  respiration  performed  in  the  oyster  ? 


RESPIRATION. 


145 


Fig.  89. 


tial  to  life,  than  in  the  lower  orders.  A  Fish  soon  ex- 
pires if  taken  out  of  the  water,  but  an  oyster  will  live 
for  weeks,  with  only  that  which  it  retains  in  the  shell. 

Respiration  in  Fishes. — One  side  of  the  gills  of  a 
Fish  is  distinctly  represented  by  Fig.  89,  which  also 
shows  the  heart  and  artery  by  which 
the  blood  is  sent  to  these  parts.  Of 
the  heart,  d,  is  the  auricle,  e,  the  ven- 
tricle, b,  the  enlargement  of  the  arte- 
ry, called  the  bulbous  arteriosus, 
which  is  shown  distinctly  in  Fig.  85, 
^/,  the  brancial  artery,  g,  g,  the  gills. 
We  here  have  an  opportunity  of  ob- 
'  serving  how  near  the  heart  of  the  Fish 
•  is  to  the  lungs,  and  consequently  of 
inferring  the  importance  of  well  sup- 
plying these  parts  with  blood.  This 
arises  from  the  circumstance  that  the 
heart  throws  the  blood  only  to  the 
gills,  and  not  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
body  as  in  the  other  animals,  hence  a 
large  proportion  of  the  blood  of  the 
whole  system,  is  constantly  in  the  gills, 
to  be  well  purified  by  the  air  before  it  circulates 
through  the  other  parts,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  these 
parts  are  highly  colored  with  blood,  while  the  other 
parts  of  the  Fish  are  white. 

The  gills  consist  of  filaments  arranged  somewhat 
like  the  leathers  of  a  quill.  When  these  filaments  are 
closely  examined,  they  are  found  to  be  covered  with 
minute  processes  crowded  close  together,  and  on  which 
may  be  observed  millions  of  capillary  blood  vessels, 
spread  like  a  net-work  over  the  whole  surface.  It  is 
through  the  thin  coats  of  these  vessels  that  the  air  acts 
upon  the  blood  they  contain. 

In  the  osseous  or  bony  fishes,  there  is  a  large  flap 
called  the  operculum,  which  covers  the  gills  from  injury, 
and  below  which  there  is  an  opening  for  the  escape  of 
the  water,  after  it  has  performed  its  office.  The  pro- 


How  is  this  function  carried  on  in  the  fish  ? 
13 


146  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

cess  of  respiration  is  performed  by  taking  the  water 
into  the  mouth,  and  forcing  it  through  the  gills,  which 
separating  their  filaments  exposes  every  part  to  its 
action. 

In  the  cartilaginous  fishes,  or  those  which  have  no  bony 
frame,  as  the  lamprey,  there  is  no  operculum  provided 
for  the  escape  of  the  water  during  respiration,  but 
instead  of  this,  there  are  several  apertures  along  the 
sides  of  the  neck,  or  throat  through  which,  the  fluid  is 
thrown. 

Respiration  in  the  Lamprey. — In  the  Lamprey  often 
called  the  Lamper-eel,  which  is  one  of  the  cartilaginous 
tribe,  the  organs  of  respiration  are  so  constructed  as  to 
be  independent  of  the  mouth  in  receiving  the  water. 
In  this  fish  there  are  seven  external  openings,  Fig.  90,  on 

Fig.  90. 


each  side  leading  into  the  same  number  of  separate 
oval  bag-like  appendages,  situated  horizontally,  the  inner 
membrane  of  which,  has  the  structure  of  gills.  Into 
these  openings  the  water  is  drawn  by  the  action  of  cer- 
tain mucles,  and  having  performed  its  office,  is  again 
ejected  by  the  same  orifices. 

Were  it  not  for  this  curious  and  singular  provision, 
the  Lamprey  would  be  unable  to  enjoy  its  usual  habit  of 
adhering  by  the  suction  of  the  mouth  to  a  smooth  stone 
or  other  solid,  or  grasping  and  sucking  its  food  by  which 
it  lives. 

ATMOSPHERIC    RESPIRATION. 

Having  thus  described  the  respiratory  organs  in  seve- 
ral orders  of  inferior  animals,  we  now  come  to  those, 


What  difference  is  there  in  the  respiration  of  the  cartilaginous  and 
bony  fishes  ? 


ATMOSPHERIC    RESPIRATION. 


147 


which,  standing  higher  in  the  scale  of  creation,  respire 
the  atmosphere  in  its  gaseous  form. 

The  physiology  of  this  class  is  no  less  diversified 
than  that  of  aquatic  animals.  Its  members  have  a 
greater  complexity  of  structure,  and  in  general,  much 
more  vivacity  of  action  than  the  class  already  described. 

To  this  division  belong  the  Insects  and  Amphibia  as 
well  as  the  Mammalia,  including  Man.  In  Insects  the 
air  is  respired  by  means  of  trachea,  which  generally 
pervade  every  part  of  the  system,  even  to  the  wings. 
In  the  Amphibia  the  air  is  swallowed,  while  in  the  Mam- 
malia, it  is  admitted  into  pulmonary  cavities  or  lungs. 

Respiration  in  Insects. — The  external  orifices  of  the 
trachea  in  Insects  are  called  spiracles  or  stigmata,  as 
already  explained.  These  are  usually  situated  in  rows 
on  each  side  of  the  body.  In  the  Iarva3  of  many  Insects 
they  are  quite  apparent  to  the  eye.  Fig.  81  shows 
these  organs  in  the  form  of 
dots  along  the  side  of  the  larva, 
of  the  honey  bee.  These  ori- 
fices lead  to  trachea  or  air 
tubes  situated  within  the  body 
of  the  Insect,  and  which  rami- 
fy so  as  to  distribute  air  to  all 
its  parts.  On  this  account, 
these  air  tubes  have  often  been 
mistaken  for  blood  vessels. 

The  drawing,  Fig.  92,  represents  the  magnified  form 
of  a  trachea  and  its  branches,  as  they  exist  in  certain 

Fig.  92. 


What  is  said  of  the  physiology  of  air  breathing  animals  ?  What  is 
the  difference  in  the  respiration  of  insects  aud  man  7  What  are  the 
stigmata  of  insects  1 


148  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

Insects.  The  cup-like  appendage  situated  on  the  upper 
and  central  part  of  the  trunk,  is  the  stigmata,  opening 
from  the  atmosphere  to  the  trachea.  There  are,  as 
above  shown,  about  ten  of  these  orifices,  on  each  side 
of  the  larva  or  caterpillar  of  most  Insects. 

These  stigmata  are  always  open  and  full  of  air,  and 
if  an  insect  be  immersed  in  water,  minute  bubbles  of  air 
may  be  seen  escaping  from  each,  being  excluded  by  the 
fluid.  While  under  the  water,  the  trachea  often  present 
a  silvery  appearance,  from  the  air  they  contain.  If  all 
the  air  is  expelled,  and  the  vessels  are  filled  with  water, 
the  Insect  is  drowned  ;  and  if  the  stigmata  be  closed  by 
oil  or  any  other  substance,  so  as  to  prevent  the  ingress 
of  air,  the  insect  will  be  suffocated. 

In  the  winged  Insects,  every  part  is  furnished  with  air 
tubes,  which  ramify  in  all  directions,  and  which  circulate 
air  as  the  arteries  do  blood.  The  nervures,  which  have 
the  appearance  of  veins  on  the  wings  of  butterflies  and 
other  Insects,  are  a  part  of  the  organs  of  respiration. 


RESPIRATION    IN    REPTILES. 

In  the  vertebrated  terrestrial  animals,  the  organs  into 
which  the  air  is  admitted  for  the  purpose  of  respiration, 
are  called  lungs ;  the  tube  leading  to  which  is  called 
trachea,  or  wind  pipe.  The  trachea  divides  at  the  up- 
per part  of  the  chest  into  two  tubes,  leading  to  each 
lung,  and  these  are  called  bronchia.  The  upper  end  of 
the  trachea,  which  lies  before  the  passage  to  the  stom- 
ach, called  the  esophagus,  is  carefully  guarded  by  a  valve 
called  the  epiglottis,  from  the  intrusion  of  any  substance 
about  to  be  swallowed,  or  passed  into  it,  on  its  wray  to 
the  stomach.  The  action  of  swallowing  closes  the  epi- 
glottis very  accurately  over  the  passage  to  the  wind 
pipe,  which  is  again  instantly  opened  in  the  act  of  re- 
spiration. 

This  description  applies  to  air  breathing  animals,  with 
back  bones  generally ;  but  when  we  come  to  examine 

What  are  the  lungs'?  What  is  the  tube  called  which  leads  to  the 
lungs'?  What  are  the  bronchia  7  What  is  the  epiglottis,  and  what  its 
use'? 


RESPIRATION    IN    REPTILES.  149 

the  different  orders,  or  tribes,  we  shall  find  a  great  di- 
versity in  the  situation,  forms,  and  structures  of  these  dif- 
ferent parts.  In  the  reptiles,  as  the  Frog  and  Snake, 
the  epiglottis  is  wanting,  the  food  being  carried  over  the 
aperture  of  the  trachea  by  the  tongue. 

The  lungs  of  reptiles  are  large  sacks  situated  on  each 
side  of  the  chest,  into  which  the  bronchia  lead. 

The  mechanism  by  which  the  air  is  taken  into  the 
lungs  in  these  animals,  is  exceedingly  curious,  and  quite 
peculiar  to  this  tribe,  it  having  been  for  a  long  time  a 
subject  of  controversy  among  naturalists,  how  these  crea- 
tures breathed. 

Respiration  of  the  Frog. — As  an  example  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  breathing  is  carried  on  among  reptiles,  con- 
sisting of  the  Chamelion,  Lizards,  Snakes,  and  others, 
we  will  describe  that  of  the  Frog,  a  race  well  known  to 
all  our  readers.  Mr.  Bell,  in  his  anatomy,  has  described 
this  process  at  length ;  but  the  following  extract  is  suffi- 
cient for  this  work. 

On  watching  a  Frog  ever  so  carefully,  when  it  is  still 
and  quiet,  we  can  scarcely  discover  any  signs  of  respir- 
ation, since  it  never  opens  its  mouth  to  receive  the  air, 
and  there  is  no  motion  of  the  sides  to  indicate  that  it 
breathes.  Yet  on  any  sudden  alarm,  we  see  the  animal 
blowing  itself  up,  as  if  by  some  internal  power,  while  at 
the  same  time  its  mouth  remains  entirely  closed.  We 
may  perceive,  however,  that  its  throat  is  in  motion,  as 
if  the  reptile  was  so  careful  of  its  mouthful  of  air,  as  to 
transfer  it  backwards  and  forwards  between  its  mouth 
and  lungs.  But  if  we  direct  our  attention  to  the  nostrils, 
we  may  observe  in  them  at  twirling  motion  at  each 
movement  of  the  bag  under  the  throat ;  for  it  is  through 
the  nostrils  that  respiration  is  carried  on  in  this  animal, 
there  being  no  other  communication  between  the  lungs 
and  the  air. 

The  jaws  are  never  opened  but  for  eating,  which  is 
only  for  the  instant  that  it  darts  out  its  tongue,  and  as 
quickly  returns  it  with  an  insect.  The  throat,  and  sides 
of  the  mouth,  form  a  kind  of  bellows,  to  which  the  nos- 
trils are  the  inlet ;  and  it  is  by  the  contraction  of  this 
13* 


150  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

part,  that  the  air  is  swallowed,  and  forced  down  the 
trachea  into  the  lungs. 

The  aperture  leading  from  the  mouth  to  the  lungs,  is 
through  the  middle  of  the  back  part  of  the  tongue.    Fig. 

Fig.  93. 


93  represents  this  odd  apparatus ;  a  the  tongue,  d  the 
orifice  to  the  trachea,  c  the  throat,  and  b  the  nostrils. — 
The  tongue  is  not  attached  far  back  in  the  throat,  like 
that  of  other  animals,  but  lies  fixed  to  the  lower  jaw,  or 
chin,  so  as  to  increase  its  length  out  of  the  mouth.  If 
the  mouth  of  a  Frog  be  forcibly  kept  open,  the  creature 
is  soon  strangled,  because  the  aperture  through  the 
tongue  is  not  only  thus  closed,  but  were  it  open,  there 
would  be  no  respiration  without  the  action  of  the  bel- 
lows, which  by  opening  the  mouth  is  destroyed. 

This  is  the  mode  in  which  most  of  the  reptiles  perform 
their  respiration,  the  process  being  that  of  swallowing 
the  air,  rather  than  breathing  it,  as  other  animals  do. 

RESPIRATION    IN    BIRDS. 

In  Birds  the  respiratory  apparatus  is  quite  different 
in  most  respects,  from  that  of  reptiles.  There  is  also  a 
remarkable  difference  in  the  mode  in  which  the  process 
is  performed. 

In  these  races,  the  air  does  not  merely  pass  into  the 
lungs,  but  is  drawn  through  them,  into  the  large  air  cells 
which  are  contiguous.  This  is  done  by  elevating  the 

How  does  the  respiration  of  the  frog  differ  from  that  of  other  animals  1 


RESPIRATION    OP    BIRDS. 


151 


chest,  by  a  set  of  muscles  for  this  purpose.  When  the 
chest  is  depressed,  this  air  is  again  expelled  through  the 
same  vessels  by  which  it  was  admitted  ;  so  that  in  these 
animals,  the  same  portion  of  air  passes  twice  through  the 
lungs.  This  is  a  wonderful  provision,  and  one  in  which 
we  cannot  but  behold  Creative  wisdom  and  design. 

The  habits  of  Birds  require  that  levity  should  be  com- 
bined with  strength,  in  their  conformation.  Had  the 
lungs  been  constructed  like  those  of  quadrupeds  and 
man,  where  the  air  is  merely  taken  in  and  thrown  out, 
a  considerable  addition  of  weight  must  have  been  the 
consequence.  But  by  the  very  peculiar  structure  of  the 
whole  apparatus,  which  allows  the  air  to  be  twice  breath- 
ed, the  lungs  could  be  reduced  to  a  very  diminutive  size, 
and  still  the  aeration  of  the  blood  be  as  perfect  as  in 
quadrupeds ;  and  this  is  the  admirable  plan  adopted  in 
these  animals. 

Lungs  of  the  Ostrich. — This  mechanism  will  be  un- 
Fig.94. 
t 


152  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

derstood  by  the  plan,  Fig.  94,  which  represents  the  lungs 
and  air  cells  of  an  Ostrich.  The  trachea  t,  is  seen  to  di- 
vide into  bronchia,  which  pass  to  the  lungs  on  each  side. 
These,  after  entering  the  lungs,  divide  into  numerous 
branches,  and  pass  quite  through  their  substance,  open- 
ing on  the  outside  by  many  apertures,  which  may  be 
seen  at  I Z,  these  parts  being  the  true  lungs  of  the  bird. 
They  are  small,  and  thin,  forming  the  dark  substance  al- 
ways seen  in  carving  a  fowl,  along  the  back,  and  be- 
tween the  ribs. 

These  apertures  admit  the  air  into  several  large  air 
cells,  c  c  c  c,  which  occupy  a  considerable  proportion  of 
the  interior  bulk.  These  cells  enclose  some  ol  the  prin- 
cipal viscera,  as  the  liver,  stomach,  and  heart,  and  extend 
down  the  sides  the  whole  length  of  the  body.  Numer- 
ous air  cells  also  exist  in  other  parts,  with  which  these 
are  connected  by  little  punctures  seen  at  c  c. 

The  air  vessels  thus  described,  not  only  communicate 
with  numerous  others  in  different  parts  of  the  body,  but 
also  with  the  interior  of  the  bones,  which  especially  in 
the  Eagle,  and  other  birds  that  are  much  on  the  wing, 
are  left  hollow,  and  without  marrow,  for  this  purpose. 

In  consequence  of  the  large  quantity  of  air  consumed 
by  the  respiration  of  Birds,  the  temperature  of  their  bo- 
dies is  several  degrees  higher  than  that  of  any  other  an- 
imal. 

"  The  peculiarities  of  structure  in  the  respiratory 
system  of  birds,"  says  Roget,  "  have  probably  a  relation 
to  the  capability  we  see  them  possess,  of  bearing  with 
impunity,  very  quick  and  violent  changes  of  atmospheric 
pressure.  Thus  the  Condor  of  the  Andes  is  often  seen 
to  descend  rapidly  from  a  height  of  above  20,000  feet, 
to  the  edge  of  the  sea,  where  the  air  is  more  than  twice 
the  density  of  that  which  the  bird  had  been  breathing. 
We  are  as  yet  unable  to  trace  the  connection  which 
probably  exists  between  the  structure  of  the  lungs,  and 
this  extraordinary  power  of  accommodation  to  such 
great  and  sudden  variations  of  atmospheric  pressure." 

What  is  there  peculiar  in  the  respiration  of  birds  ?  Ho  w  do  the  lungs 
of  birds  differ  from  those  of  quadrupeds  7  What  is  said  of  the  air  cell* 
surrounding  the  lungs  of  birds  1 


RESPIRATION   IN    THE    MAMMALIA.  153 

The  Birds  rank  above  all  the  animal  creation  in  vital 
energy,  as  well  as  in  muscular  action.  This  appears  to 
be  in  consequence  of  the  double  effects  of  the  respiration 
on  the  circulating  fluid,  as  it  passes  through  the  lungs. 


RESPIRATION    IN    THE    MAMMALIA. 

But  notwithstanding,  we  see  in  the  birds,  a  wonder- 
ful adaptation  of  the  respiratory  apparatus  to  the  wants 
and  conveniences  of  that  order,  still  we  shall  find,  that 
the  construction  of  the  pulmonary  system  of  Man  and 
the  other  Mammalia,  involve  physiological  advantages 
not  to  be  found  in  any  other  class  of  animals. 

The  points  in  which  this  superiority  exists  will  be 
noticed  in  the  progress  of  the  description  of  the  organs 
of  respiration  in  Man,  to  which  we  now  proceed,  and 
which  may  be  considered  as  the  type  of  the  same  parts 
in  all  the  other  Mammalia. 

Respiration  in  Man. — In  our  own  species,  the  thorax 
or  chest  which  contains  the  respiratory  organs,  as  well 
as  all  the  other  vital  parts,  is  entirely  surrounded  by  a 
frame  work  of  bone,  so  that  these  parts  are  defended 
with  great  care  from  external  injury.  These  bones 
consist  of  the  spine,  the  ribs,  and  the  sternum,  or  breast 
bone. 

Trunk  of  the  Human  Skeleton. — ^The  trunk  of  the 
Human  Skeleton  is  represented  by  Fig.  95,  of  which  «, 
is  the  sternum,  b  b,  the  spine,  and  cccc,  the  ribs.  These 
bones,  it  is  well  known,  are  connected  together  in  the 
living  system,  by  muscles  and  ligaments,  and  by  which 
they  are  moved  in  a  slight  degree  in  the  act  of  respira- 
tion. 

In  what  respect  do  the  birds  rank  above  all  other  animals  1-  What  is 
said  of  the  perfection  of  the  pnlmonary  system  in  man  1  What  are  the 
parts  of  the  human  skeleton  which  enclose  the  organs  of  respiration  ? 


154  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 


Parts  concerned  in  Respiration. — The  parts  concern- 
ed in  the  respiration  of  Man  may  therefore  be  arranged 
into  three  divisions :  First,  the  bones  which  form  the 
respiratory  cavity  ;  second,  the  muscles  by  which  these 
bones  are  moved;  and  third,  the  respiratory  organs 
themselves. 

Belonging  to  the  first  division,  there  are  one  sternum, 
twelve  pieces  of  the  spine,  called  the  dorsal  vertebra, 
and  twenty-four  ribs. 

The  second  division  consists  of  the  diaphragm,  and 
several  pairs  of  muscles. 

The  third  division  contains  the  trachea,  bronchia,  and 
lungs. 

There  is  no  necessity  of  describing  the  skeleton  of 
the  trunk,  having  already  done  so  for  another  purpose, 
under  figures  63,  64,  and  65. 

The  muscles  concerned  in  respiration  are  the  dia- 
phragm, and  the  intercostal  muscles,  together  with  several 

What  is  the  principal  organ  concerned  in  respiration  1 


RESPIRATION    IN   THE    MAMMALIA.  155 

others  of  less  importance.  The  intercostal,  or  the  mus- 
cles between  the  ribs,  as  the  word  signifies,  assist  in 
elevating  the  sternum  and  ribs,  and  thus  of  enlarging 
the  capacity  of  the  chest  in  the  act  of  inspiration,  or 
drawing  in  the  breath.  But  the  diaphragm  is  by  far  the 
most  important  muscular  agent  in  the  process  of  respira- 
tion. 

Situation  of  the  Diaphragm. — This  part  is  situated 
transversely  and  obliquely  scross  the  body,  dividing  the 
interior  into  two  parts.  Its  anterior  attachment  is  to 
the  inner  surface  of  the  breast  bone,  thence  running 
down  in  the  direction  of  the  ribs,  it  is  attached  to  the 
vertebra  of  the  loins.  The  heart,  large  blood  vessels, 
and  lungs  are  thus  situated  above  and  behind  tbe  dia- 
phragm, while  the  stomach  and  liver  are  situated  below 
and  before  it.  It  is  firmly  attached  to  the  pericardium, 
a  membrane  surrounding  the  heart,  and  through  it  pass 
the  esophagus  and  large  blood  vessels. 

The  centre  of  the  diaphragm  is  tendinous,  but  around 
its  whole  circumference,  it  is  composed  of  muscle.  The 
muscular  part  only,  is  that  which  contracts  and  dilates 
during  respiration. 

It  is  chiefly  by  the  alternate  contraction  and  relaxa- 
tion of  this  muscle,  that  the  air  is  drawn  into,  and 
expelled  from  the  lungs. 

The  trachea,  or  wind  pipe,  as  we  have  before  shown, 
leads  from  the  back  part  of  the  throat  to  the  bronchia, 
while  the  latter,  is  merely  a  division  of  the  former  into 
two  parts  leading  to  each  lung. 

The  bronchi,  when  they  reach  the  lungs  divide  into 
numerous  ramifications  forming  air  tubes  throughout 
their  whole  substance,  so  that  the  structure  of  these 
parts  appear  to  consist  of  little  more  than  fine  air  tubes, 
made  of  a  thin  and  delicate  membrane. 

The  lungs  thus  constructed,  are  two  spongy,  flatish, 
conical  bodies  situated  within  the  lateral  cavities  of  the 
chest,  which  they  completely  iill. 

What  is  the  situation  of  the  diaphragm  7  What  part  of  the  dia- 
phragm is  muscular,  and  what  part  tendinous  ?  What  portion  contract* 
and  relaxes  during  respiration  1  What  become  of  the  bronchia  after 
they  reach  the  lungs  ? 


156 


VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 


Human  Lungs  and  Heart. — Fig.  96,  represents  the 
lungs,  together  with  the  heart  and  large  arteries,  and 


Fig.  96. 


diaphragm  as  they  are  situated  in  Man ;  a,  the  heart ; 
b  b,  the  lungs  ;  c  c,  the  diaphragm.  The  bases  of  the 
lungs,  it  will  be  observed,  rest  upon  the  diaphragm, 
with  which  they  are  always  in  close  contact.  The  lungs 
are  distinguished  into  parts,  called  lobes,  which  are  partial 
divisions  of  their  lower  parts.  The  right  side  of  the 
chest  being  larger  than  the  left,  because  the  heart  is 
principally  on  the  left  side,  the  right  lung  has  three 
lobes,  while  the  left  has  only  two.  The  lungs  are  entire- 
ly made  up  of  air  cells  and  blood  vessels,  intermingling 
with  each  other  in  the  closest  manner,  the  two  fluids 
being  divided  from  each  other  by  the  thinest  mem- 
branes. Thus  as  the  blood  passes  through  the  lungs,  it 
is  largely  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  air  through 
this  membrane. 

Such  is  the  extreme  tenuity  of  these  vessels  that 
Dr.  Keil  estimated  the  number  of  cells  in  the  lungs  to 
be  nearly  180  millions,  and  Dr.  Hales,  supposing  each 
air-cell  at  1-1 00th  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  compu- 
ted that  the  whole  surface  in  both  lungs  would  be  equal 
to  20,000  square  inches.  It  is  upon  this  surface  that 
the  venous  blood  is  distributed  by  an  equal  infinity  of 
vessels,  and  by  which  means  it  is  aerated,  or  changed 
into  arterial  blood,  which  is  then  immediately  sent  to 
renovate  and  vivify  the  whole  system,  as  shown  in  the 

What  are  the  relative  situation  of  the  lungs,  heart,  and  diaphragm  1 
What  is  the  substance  of  the  lungs  composed  of  1  What  amount  of  sur- 
face is  it  computed  the  air  vessels  of  Jungs  contain  ? 


CHEMICAL    EFFECTS    OF    RESPIRATION.  157 

description  of  the  circulation.  What  a  masterly !  what 
a  wonderful  piece  of  mechanism  this  !  A  surface  of 
air  several  hundred  feet  in  extent,  and  a  surface  of 
blood  of  similar  dimensions,  all  within  the  bulk  of  eight 
or  ten  inches  long,  and  five  or  six  in  diameter.  Where 
shall  we  look  for  a  parallel,  even  among  the  effects  of 
Infinite  wisdom  ? 


CHEMICAL    EFFECTS    OF    RESPIRATION. 

^  atmosphere,  as  already  stated,  acts  upon  the 
blood  through  the  tissue  of  vessels  in  which  both  fluids 
are  confined.  The  most  obvious  effects  resulting  from 
this  action,  is  the  change  of  color  from  the  dark  purple 
hue  which  the  venous  blood  has,  when  it  comes  to  the 
lungs,  to  the  bright  vermillion  which  it  assumes  when  it 
returns  to  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart. 

The  atmospheric  air  which  produces  this  change,  is 
composed  of  20  parts  of  oxygen  gas,  and  80  parts  of 
nitrogen  gas,  with  a  variable  portion  of  carbonic  acid 
gas.  After  the  action  of  the  air  upon  the  blood,  and 
when  it  is  again  thrown  out  of  the  lungs,  it  is  found  that 
a  portion  of  the  oxygen  which  it  contained  has  disap- 
peared, and  that  it  is  replaced,  or  nearly  so  by  carbonic 
acid  gas.  There  is  also  a  quantity  of  watery  vapor, 
always  emitted  from  the  lungs  at  every  expiration. 

The  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed  in  respiration,  not 
only  depends  on  the  kind  of  animal,  but  also  on  the  dif- 
ferent conditions  of  the  same  animal.  Thus  animals  of 
the  lower  order,  as  the  Mollusca,  require  very  little  ox- 
ygen, and  will  live  for  a  long  time  in  an  atmosphere  in 
which  Birds,  and  Mammalia  have  perished  for  want  of 
it.  The  same  animal  also,  when  exercising  vigorously, 
consumes,  and  requires  more  oxygen  than  when  at  rest. 

Now  carbonic  acid  is  composed  of  carbon  and  oxy- 
gen, and  since  the  oxygen  disappears  in  the  act  of  respi- 
ration, and  there  is  a  like  quantity  of  the  former  gas 
found  in  its  place,  it  is  inferred  that  the  oxygen  has  com- 


What  is  the  most  obvious  effect  of  the  action  of  the  air  on  the  blood 
of  the  lungs  ?    What  is  the  composition  of  air  ?    What  is  the  effect  of 
respiration  of  the  composition  of  the  air  respired  ? 
14 


158  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

bined  with  a  portion  of  carbon  from  the  dark  blood  in 
the  lungs,  and  that  while  carbonic  acid  is  thus  formed, 
the  blood  becomes  of  a  lighter  color  in  consequence  of 
parting  with  a  portion  of  carbon,  and  this  undoubtedly 
is  the  true  theory  of  respiration. 

The  blood  having  thus  parted  with  its  super-abundant 
carbon  which  escapes  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas, 
acquires  its  natural  vermillion  color,  and  is  again  qualifi- 
ed to  be  transmitted  to  the  different  parts  of  the  system, 
for  their  nourishment  and  growth. 

It  is  found  by  analysis,  that  the  venous  blood  contains 
a  greater  proportion  of  carbon  than  the  arterial  blood, 
and  also  a  greater  proportion  than  the  animal  solids  or 
fluids.  Now  the  elements  of  blood  are  oxygen,  hydro- 
gen,  and  nitrogen,  and  it  is  from  the  blood  that  all  the 
other  parts  are  formed.  Hence  in  the  formation  or 
growth  of  other  parts,  if  there  is  employed  a  greater 
proportion  of  the  other  elements,  and  a  less  proportion 
of  the  carbon  than  the  blood  contains,  the  effect  is,  an 
accumulation  of  the  latter  in  the  blood.  And  as  an  excess 
of  carbon  appears  to  be  noxious  to  the  animal  economy, 
this  excess  is  removed  by  combining  with  the  oxygen  of 
the  atmosphere  as  the  blood  circulates  through  the 
lungs. 

Respiration  analogous  to  combustion. — The  process 
of  respiration  has  long  since  been  considered  analagous 
to  that  of  combustion,  which  is  certainly  the  case.  In 
ordinary  combustion  the  carbon  of  the  combustible  body 
unites  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  and  while 
heat  is  evolved,  carbonic  acid  escapes,  being  the  joint 
product  of  the  carbon  and  oxygen.  Mr.  Roget  has 
carried  this  idea  so  far  as  to  turn  the  respiratory  appa- 
ratus into  a  regular  furnace,  with  bellows  &c.  "  The 
food,"  says  he,  "  supplies  the  fuel,  which  is  prepared  for 
use  by  the  digestive  organs,  and  conveyed  by  the  pulmo- 
nary arteries,  to  the  place  where  it  is  to  undergo  com- 
bustion :  the  diaphragm  is  the  bellows,  which  feeds  the 

What  is  said  of  the  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed  by  animals'? 
What  is  the  composition  of  carbonic  acid  7  What  are  the  elements  of 
blood  1  How  do  you  account  for  the  accumulation  of  carbon  in  the 
blood  * 


CHEMICAL    EFFECTS    OF    RESPIRATION.  159 

furnace  with  air ;  and  the  trachea  is  the  chimney,  through 
which  the  carbonic  acid  which  is  the  product  of  the  com- 
bustion, escapes." 

Animal  Heat. — That  animal  heat  depends  on  the  pro- 
cess of  respiration,  and  that  the  temperature,  whether 
higher  or  lower,  depends,  at  least  in  some  degree,  on 
the  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed,  there  is  good  reason 
to  suppose.  The  uniform  relation  which  may  be  ob- 
served between  the  temperature  of  animals  and  the  en- 
ergy of  the  respiratory  function,  affords  a  very  strong 
presumption  that  this  is  the  case. 

It  is  true  that  many  objections  have  been  brought 
against  this  theory,  and  yet  no  other  hypothesis  has 
been  offered  which  can  be  supported  by  so  many  con- 
current facts  as  this.  We  find  as  a  universal  truth,  that 
all  hot  blooded  animals  consume,  or  vitiate,  large  quan- 
tities of  air  by  respiration,  and  that  the  whole  mass  of 
blood  in  these,  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere, 
in  a  gaseous  form.  Whereas  the  cold  blooded  tribe  de- 
pend for  respiration  on  the  minute  portions  of  air  the 
water  contains,  or  are  so  constructed  that  only  half  of 
their  blood  is  exposed  to  atmospheric  influence.  These 
circumstances  have  already  been  noticed  and  explained 
in  the  account  we  have  given  of  comparative  circula- 
tion and  respiration. 

Warm  blood  in  Whales. — We  find  that  when  animals 
have  all  the  habits  of  fish,  and  spend  their  lives  among 
the  ice  of  the  northern  oceans,  they  still  have  warm 
blood  if  their  organs  of  respiration  are  so  constructed 
as  to  expose  the  whole  mass  of  circulating  fluid  to  the 
influence  of  pure  atmospheric  air.  Thus  the  Whales, 
and  Dolphins  have  the  breathing  apparatus  of  the  Mam- 
malia, to  which  class  of  animals  they  belong,  and  like 
all  the  other  members  of  this  class  have  hearts  with  two 
ventricles,  and  a  double  system  of  circulation  ;  and  al- 
though they  are  constantly  exposed  to  the  temperature 
of  the  sea,  that  of  their  systems  is  similar  to  the  other 


In  what  respects  are  the  effects  of  respiration  similar  to  those  of  ordi- 
nary combustion  1  What  reason  is  there  to  believe  that  animal  temper- 
ature depends  on  the  quantity  of  air  used  in  respiration  ? 


160  SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

members  of  the  Mammalia  tribes.  The  Porpoise  is 
also  another  of  this  class.  These  animals  are  obliged 
of  course,  to  come  up  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  the  ac- 
tion called  spouting  being  merely  the  expiration  of  the 
air  from  the  lungs,  preparatory  to  the  inspiration  of  an- 
other portion,  and  by  which  a  quantity  of  water  is 
thrown  above  the  surface. 


PART   V. 


SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 


THE  Sensorial  Functions  are  those  which  belong  to 
the  brain,  as  the  general  source  of  sensation  and  per- 
ception. The  systems  we  have  heretofore  been  occupi- 
ed in  describing,  consisting  of  the  Mechanical  and  Ani- 
mal Functions,  are  only  the  foundations  of  the  higher 
order  of  faculties  which  animals,  and  especially  man  are 
destined  to  exercise. 

Brain  and  Nerves. — The  functions  of  sensation,  per- 
ception and  voluntary  motion,  require  the  presence  of 
an  organized  animal  substance,  which  is  endowed  with 
very  remarkable  properties,  and  which  is  known  to 

What  are  sensorial  functions'?  What  is  the  foundation  of  the  sensorial 
functions  *? 


SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS.  161 

^  sioiogists  under  the  name  of  the  medulary  substance. 
This  substance  composes  the  greatest  proportion  of  the 
brain,  spinal  marrow,  and  nerves.  These  together,  com- 
pose that  set  of  organs  generally  known  under  the  name 
of  the  nervous  system. 

The  brain  is  the  primary  and  essential  organ  of  sen- 
sation, the  nerves  and  spinal  marrow  being  the  instru- 
ments, or  media  by  which  external  impressions  are  con- 
veyed to  this  source  of  perception. 

The  nerves  are  bundles  of  white  filaments  or  threads, 
which,  like  the  blood  vessels,  are  divided  into  branches, 
and  finally  into  very  minute  fibres,  which,  in  some  instan- 
ces are  distributed  to  every  part  of  the  system ;  there 
being  for  instance  not  a  portion  of  the  skin  which  can 
be  touched  by  the  finest  point,  where  there  is  not  a 
nerve. 

The  nerves  thus  pervading  the  whole  system,  are 
those  of  touch ;  and  they  are  universally  present  in  all 
orders  of  animals,  however  low  in  the  scale  of  exis- 
tence. In  the  Mollusca  and  Polypi,  these  appear  to  be 
the  only  organs  of  sensation,  since  no  external  cause 
applicable  to  the  other  senses  have  the  least  effect  upon 
them.  They  close  their  shells,  or  recede  when  touched, 
but  often  exhibit  no  other  signs  of  life. 

As  we  rise  higher  in  the  scale  of  animal  existence, 
we  find  that  the  different  orders  are  furnished  with  a 
greater  number  of  these  instruments  of  sensation.  Thus 
some  races  have  not  only  the  nerves  of  touch  but  those 
of  sight,  those  of  hearing  and  smell  being  denied  them. 
In  the  next  step  of  organization,  we  may  find  all  these, 
writh  perhaps  the  absence  of  taste  ;  and  it  is  only  when 
we  examine  the  highest  orders  of  animals,  that  we  find 
the  senses  of  touch,  taste,  smell,  seeing  and  hearing,  all 
combined  in  the  same  animal. 

The  appearance  of  the  nerves  are  every  where  simi- 
lar, those  of  the  touch,  or  taste,  or  smell,  not  being  dis- 
tinguishable from  each  other,  except  by  tracing  them  to 
the  organs  of  perception  to  which  they  refer. 

What  composes  the  nervous  system'?  What  part  is  the  origin  or 
source  of  sensation!  How  are  sensations  conveyed  to  the  brain  1  HOMT 
do  the  nerves  appear  1  What  is  said  of  the  nerves  of  touch  1 

14* 


162 


SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 


Nervous  Ganglia. — The  nerves,  as  they  pass  along 
the  different  members  often  form  ganglia,  or  knots, 
which  are  small  oval  masses  of  nervous  substance,  con- 
sisting of  the  ordinary  filaments  interlacing  each  other. 
A  ganglion  is  represented  at  g,  Fig.  97,  through  which 


Fig.  97. 


the  nerve  n  passes,  consisting  at  its  origin  of  a  number 
of  separate  filaments/*,  and  again,  sub-dividing  into  many 
branches  b. 

A  plexus,  or  net  work  of  nerves,  is  shown  by  Fig.  98. 
This  is  formed  of  four  trunks,  seen  distinct  at  t,  t,  but 
which  variously  interlace  each  other,  at  the  same  time 
dividing  into  branches,  before  they  proceed  to  their 
respective  destinations. 

The  ganglia  appear  to  be  a  kind  of  secondary  senso- 
ria,  or  rather  perhaps  reservoirs  of  the  nervous  power, 
and  in  which  nervous  filaments  from  the  neighboring 
parts  concentrate,  or  from  which  these  filaments  pro- 
ceed. They  are  perhaps  points  where  nerves  convey- 
ing different  kinds  of  intelligence  to  the  brain  meet,  and 
by  mingling  their  influence  convey  compound  sensations 
to  the  mind. 

But  the  subject  of  sensation  and  perception,  as  con- 
nected with  the  powers  of  reasoning  and  reflection,  do 
not  come  within  the  scope  of  this  volume,  and  we  shall 


What  are  ganglia"? 
ies  of  ganglia  1 


What  is  a  plexus  of  nerves  7    What  are  the 


VISION.  163 

therefore  proceed  to  describe  the  organs  of  sensation  as 
they  exist  in  the  human  species. 


VISION. 

"  To  those,"  says  Mr.  Roget,  "who  study  nature  with  a 
view  to  the  discovery  of  final  causes,  no  subject  can  be 
more  interesting  or  instructive,  than  the  physiology  of 
Vision,  the  most  refined  and  admirable  of  all  our 
senses." 

In  a  great  proportion  of  the  complicated  works  of 
creation,  although  we  may  be  able  to  see  the  most 
admirable  mechanism,  we  are  unable  to  trace  its  opera- 
tions, step  by  step,  and  point  out  the  ultimate  end  and 
object.  "  But  in  the  subject  which  now  claims  our  atten- 
tion," continues  Mr.  Roget,  "  we  have  been  permitted  to 
trace,  for  a  considerable  extent,  the  continuity  of  design, 
and  the  lengthened  series  of  means  employed  for  car- 
rying that  design  into  execution ;  and  the  view  which  is 
thus  unfolded  of  the  magnificent  scheme  of  the  creation, 
is  calculated  to  give  us  the  most  sublime  ideas  of  THE 
WISDOM,  THE  POWER,  AND  THE  BENEVOLENCE  OF  GOD." 

The  sense  of  Vision  is  intended  to  convey  to  us  a 
knowledge  of  the  presence,  situation,  and  color  of  exter- 
nal, and  distant  objects,  by  means  of  the  light  which 
those  objects  are  continually  sending  off,  either  sponta- 
neously, or  by  reflection  from  other  bodies.  It  would 
appear  that  there  is  only  one  part  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, so  peculiarly  organized  as  to  be  capable  of  being 
affected  by  luminous  rays,  and  conveying  to  the  mind 
the  sensation  of  light ;  and  this  part  is  the  retina,  so 
named  from  the  thin  and  delicate  membranous  net- work, 
on  which  the  pulpy  extremities  of  the  optic  nerve  are 
expanded,  establishing  an  immediate  communication 
between  that  part  and  the  brain. 


STRUCTURE    OF   THE    HUMAN    EYE. 

In  treating  on  vision,  it  has  been  usual,  first  to  trace 
the  optical  principles  so  far  as  the  eye  is  concerned,  and 
then  to  apply  these  principles  to  the  organ  itself.  But 


164  SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

it  is  difficult  to  make  these  principles  understood  with- 
out the  use  of  many  diagrams,  and  lengthy  explana- 
tions ;  and  after  all,  we  are  obliged  to  refer  to  the  eye 
itself,  the  most  perfect  of  optical  instruments,  in  order 
to  illustrate  these  preparatory  steps.  We  shall  there- 
fore begin  with  the  structure  of  the  eye,  as  the  basis  of 
visual  physiology,  and  after  which,  such  explanations 
will  follow  as  will,  it  is  hoped,  make  the  subject  in  ques- 
tion, both  plain  and  interesting. 

The  spherical  form  of  the  eye  is  preserved  by  firm 
membranes  of  various  thickness,  called  the  coats  of  the 
eye.  The  transparent  media  which  these  coats  enclose, 
and  which  refract  the  light  so  as  to  form  a  picture  on 
the  retina  are  called  the  Humors  of  the  Eye.  There  are 
three  principal  coats  or  membranes,  called  the  Scleroti- 
ca,  the  Cornea,  and  the  Choroid,  besides  which,  there  is 
the  Retina,  which  covers  the  back  part  of  the  eye.  The 
three  humors  are  called  the  Aqueous,  the  Vitreous,  and 
Crystalline,  the  latter  being  a  firm  body,  is  usually  called 
the  Lens. 

Horizontal  section  of  the  Human  Eye. — Fig.  99  rep- 
resents a  horizontal  section  of  the  right  Human  Eye. 

Fig.  99. 


How  many  coats  has  the  eye,  and  what  are  their  naiiesl    How 
many  humors  has  the  eye  and  what  are  their  names  1 


STRUCTURE    OF    THE    HUMAN    EYE.  165 

The  sclerotic  coat,  s,  is  that  which  surrounds  all  the 
others,  being  the  exterior  coat  of  the  eye.  This  is  a 
firm,  dense  membrane,  and  gives  the  eye  ball  its  chief 
mechanical  support.  The  sclerotica  does  not  cover  the 
front  of  the  eye  ball,  that  portion  being  covered  by  the 
cornea  c,  which  forms  the  most  prominent  part  of  the 
organ.  The  sclerotic  coat  forms  what  is  usually  called 
the  white  of  the  eye,  while  the  cornea  covers  the  trans- 
parent front,  through  which  vision  is  performed.  The 
sclerotica  is  lined  on  the  inside  by  the  choroid  coat,  x, 
which  is  chiefly  made  up  of  a  tissue  of  fine  blood  ves- 
sels, giving  nourishment  to  the  different  parts  of  the  eye. 
The  retina,  r,  is  an  exceedingly  thin  and  delicate  expan- 
sion of  the  optic  nerve  o,  situated  within  the  choroid 
coat.  This  is  the  immediate  organ  of  vision. 

Of  the  three  humors,  the  vitreous  v,  occupies  more 
than  three  parts  of  the  whole  globe  of  the  eye.  It  con- 
sists of  a  transparent  jelly,  which  has  somewhat  of  a 
glassy  appearance,  and  hence,  its  name  vitreous,  or  glassy. 
The  crystalline  humor,  has  the  shape  of  a  double  convex 
lens,  and  occupies  the  front  part  of  the  eye,  being  situa- 
ted between  the  aqueous  and  vitreous  humors.  The 
aqueous  humor  a,  is  a  transparent,  watery  fluid  which 
occupies  the  most  prominent  portion  of  the  organ, 
immediately  within  the  cornea.  In  this  humor  is  situa- 
ted the  iris,  i,  a  thin,  circular  membrane,  which  is  of  vari- 
ous colors  in  different  persons,  being  black,  in  the  black, 
and  blue,  in  the  blue  eyed.  On  this  account,  this  part 
is  called  iris9  i,  which  means  rainbow.  Through  the  iris 
there  is  a  central  perforation,  called  the  pupil,  p,  through 
which  the  light,  or  the  images  of  objects  pass  to  the 
retina.  The  iris  is  fixed  to  the  choroid  coat  by  a  white 
elastic  ring,  called  the  ciliary  ligament,  g.  The  interi- 
or surface  of  the  iris  is  lined  with  a  dark  brown  pigment 
called  the  uvea. 

Structure  of  the  Iris. — The  structure  of  the  Iris  is 
very  peculiar,  being  composed  of  two  layers  of  con- 

What  is  the  situation  of  the  sclerotic  coat  1  What  is  the  choroid  coat  7 
What  is  the  situation  of  the  cornea  1  Where  is  the  vitreous  humor  situ- 
ated 1  What  is  the  shape  and  situation  of  the  crystalline  lens  ?  What 
is  the  iris  ?  What  forms  the  pupil  of  the  eye  ? 


166  8ENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

Fig. JOG.  tractile  fibres,  Fig.  100.  One  of  these 
layers  form  concentric  circles,  the  other 
being  disposed  in  the  form  of  radii 
reaching  from  the  pupil  to  the  circum- 
ference. 

The  delicate  fibres  of  which  these 
layers  are  composed,  perform  the  part  of  muscles  in 
varying  the  size  of  the  pupil.  When  those  forming 
concentric  circles  act,  the  pupil  is  diminished  ;  when 
those  forming  radii  contract,  the  margin  of  the  pupil  is 
brought  nearer  the  circumference,  and  of  course  the 
aperture  is  enlarged. 

No  piece  of  mechanism  can  excel  this  in  simplicity, 
beauty,  and  perfection.  By  its  contractions  and  dila- 
tions the  quantity  of  light  admitted  into  the  eye  is  regu- 
lated. When  its  intensity  would  be  injurious  to  the 
sensibility  of  the  retina,  then  the  circular  muscles  act 
and  close  the  aperture,  sometimes  almost  to  a  point ; 
while,  if  the  quantity  of  light  flowing  from  objects  be 
too  small  as  during  the  evening,  or  on  going  into  a  dark 
room,  the  radiating  fibres  contract,  and  opening  the 
aperture,  admit  as  large  a  quantity  of  light  as  possible. 
We  shall  see  hereafter  also,  that  the  contraction  of  the 
pupil  serves  to  exclude  such  rays  as  would  otherwise 
fall  upon  parts  of  the  crystalline  lens  which  are  unfitted 
to  bring  them  to  a  focus,  and  in  which  case  vision  would 
be  confused  and  imperfect. 

PHYSIOLOGY    OF    VISION. 

Having  thus  described  the  mechanism  of  the  eye,  we 
will  next  explain  the  optical  principles  involved  in  the 
visual  function. 

The  passage  of  light,  through  the  air,  or  through  any 
other  medium  of  equal  density,  throughout,  is  always 
in  straight  lines.  But  when  a  ray  of  light  passes  into, 
or  out  of,  a  medium  of  a  different  density,  it  is  bent,  or 

What  is  the  structure  of  the  iris  7  "What  are  the  different  uses  of  the 
t<*o  coats  ]  When  a  ray  of  light  passes  obliquely  into,  or  out  of  a 
rarer,  or  a  denser  medium,  how  is  the  ray  effected  1  In  what  direction  is 
the  refraction  when  it  passes  from  a  rarer  into  a  denser  medium  7 


PHYSIOLOGY    OP    VISION.  167 

refracted  out  of  a  straight  line,  unless  it  strikes  the  new 
medium  in  a  perpendicular  direction.  Air,  water,  glass, 
or  any  other  substance  through  which  light  passes  is 
called  a  medium. 

If  the  ray  passes  obliquely,  from  a  rarer  into  a  denser 
medium,  as  from  air  into  water,  or  from  water  into 
glass,  it  is  refracted  towards  a  perpendicular  line  drawn 
from  the  surface  of  the  medium.  But  when  the  ray 
passes  out  of  a  denser  into  a  rarer  medium,  the  refrac- 
tion isfiom  the  same  perpendicular. 

Thus  the  ray  e,  Fig.  101,  striking  obliquely  on  the 
surface  of  a  denser  medium,  at  the  point  s,  instead  of 


Fig.  101. 


pursuing  its  original  course  along  the  line,  s,  o,  is  refrac- 
ted into  the  direction  s,  t,  which  is  a  line  situated 
between  s,  o,  and  s,p ;  this  latter  line  being  drawn  per- 
pendicular to  the  surface  of  the  medium,  at  which  the 
ray  enters.  When  the  ray  arrives  at  t,  it  passes  from  a 
denser  into  a  rarer  medium,  and  is  refracted  in  the  con- 
trary direction  ;  that  is,  it  inclines  towards  the  perpen- 
dicular line  t,i, drawn  from  t,  within  the  denser  medium, 
and  describes  the  new  course  t,  u,  instead  of  t,  v. 

In  all  cases  of  refraction,  the  amount  corresponds  to 
the  degree  of  obliquity  of  the  ray  to  the  surface  which 
refracts  it ;  while  that  ray  which  passes  perpendicularly 
from  one  medium  to  another,  no  matter  how  different 
their  densities,  is  not  refracted  at  all,  but  pursues  a  straight 
course  as  though  the  media  were  of  one  and  the  same 
density. 

In  the  application  of  these  principles  to  the  form  of  a 
dense  medium,  which  shall  bring  the  rays  of  light  pass- 

What  is  the  direction  when  it  passes  into  a  rarer  medium  1  What 
does  the  amount  of  refraction  correspond  with  1 


168 


SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 


ing  through  it,  from  the  air,  to  a  point,  or  focus,  it  is  plain 
that  two  sections  of  a  solid  transparent  sphere  with  their 
plane  faces  applied  to  each  other,  is  one  of  the  forms 
which  is  indicated.  This  form,  made  of  solid  glass,  is 
called  a  double  convex  lens,  and  which  corresponds  very 
nearly  to  the  shape  of  the  crystalline  lens,  in  the  human 
eye. 

The  amount  of  refraction  being  in  proportion  to  the 
obliquity  of  the  refracting  surface,  if  the  rays  of  light 
proceed  in  parallel  lines,  then  the  refractive  power  will 
be  greatest,  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  central 
ray,  and  thus  all  will  be  concentrated  at  the  same  point. 

It  will  be  observed  on  inspecting  the  lens  a,  Fig.  102, 
and  comparing  its  form  with  the  law  of  refraction 

Fig.  102. 


above  stated,  that  both  sides  of  a  sphere  conspire  to 
bring  parallel  rays  of  light  to  a  focus  ;  the  first  side  by 
turning  them  towards,  and  the  other  from  a  perpendicu- 
lar raised  from  their  respective  surfaces  of  refraction. 

After  the  rays  have  been  made  to  converge  to  a  focus 
e,  they  cross  each  other,  and  again  diverge  from  that 
point  as  shown  by  the  figure. 

It  will  be  seen  in  the  sequel,  that  the  lens  of  the  eye 
operates  precisely  on  the  rays  of  light,  like  the  convex 
lens  just  described,  only  that  the  former  is  a  more  per- 
fect instrument  than  any  which  can  be  constructed  by 
the  hand  of  man.  But  before  we  proceed  to  describe 
the  manner  in  which  vision  is  performed,  we  will  show 
by  a  very  simple  experiment  in  what  manner  the  images 

What  is  the  form  of  a  double  convex  lens  1  In  parallel  rays  what 
part  of  a  double  convex  lens  has  the  greatest  refractive  power  7  Do  both 
sides  of  the  lens  conspire  to  form  the  focus  or  not  ? 


PHYSIOLOGY    OP    VISION. 


169 


of  external  objects  may  be  produced  in  a  darkened 
room,  as  an  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which  the  same 
effect  is  produced  in  the  eye. 

Let  a  room  be  darkened  so  as  to  exclude  all  the  light 
in  every  direction,  except  through  a  small  aperture  in 
a  window  shutter.  The  consequence  will  be,  that  the 
images  of  external  objects,  as  trees,  houses,  and  men, 
will  be  seen  painted  in  the  inverted  position,  on  the 
opposite  wall,  or  on  a  screen  of  white  paper  held  before 
the  aperture. 

Cause  of  the  Inverted  Image. — The  reason  why  these 
images  are  inverted,  is,  that  the  rays  of  light  proceeding 
from  the  extremities  of  the  objects  must  converge  in 
order  to  pass  through  the  small  aperture,  and  conse- 
quently they  cross  each  other,  at  that  point,  so  that  the 
lowest  portion  of  the  object  is  the  highest  part  of  the 
picture.  All  this  will  be  readily  understood  by  a  bare 
inspection  of  Fig.  102,  which  represents  a  monument, 

Fi<r.  103. 


with  the  course  of  the  rays  from  its  extremities,  crossing 
each  other  at  the  aperture,  and  a  picture  of  the  same 
inverted  on  the  inside  of  the  room. 

This  little  experiment  which  almost  any  one  can  try, 
forms  a  faint  Camera  Obscura.  The  picture,  however, 
becomes  brighter  by  enlarging  the  aperture,  but  at  the 


How  may  a  simple  camera  obscura  be  formed  7  Why  is  the  picture 
brighter  when  the  rays  pass  through  a  small  aperture  1  Why  is  the 
image  rendered  indistinct  when  the  aperture  is  enlarged  ? 

15 


170  SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

same  time  is  rendered  more  indistinct,  because  then  the 
rays  interfere,  and  mingle  with  each  other. 

The  only  method  by  which  distinctness  of  the  image  and 
increased  illumination  can  be  obtained,  is  by  collecting 
into  one  point  a  great  number  of  rays,  proceeding  from 
the  corresponding  points  of  the  object  to  be  represented. 
This  intention  is  answered  by  the  use  of  a  short  tube 
containing  a  double  convex  lens,  such  as  is  represented 
by  Fig.  101,  inserted  into  the  aperture.  By  this  instru- 
ment, the  rays  are  collected  by  refraction,  and  concen- 
trated so  as  to  present  a  perfectly  defined  and  highly 
illuminated  picture. 

Now  these  illustrations,  and  principles,  are  exactly 
those  which  apply  to  the  mechanism,  and  use  of  the 
human  eye  ;  which,  in  all  respects,  is  a  camera  obscura, 
of  the  most  perfect  workmanship.  The  vitreous  humor 
is  the  space  occupied  by  the  darkened  chamber ;  the 
pupil  is  the  aperture  through  which  the  light  is  admitted ; 
the  crystalline  humor  is  the  double  convex  lens,  by  which 
the  rays  of  light  are  collected  and  concentrated ;  and 
the  retina  is  the  screen,  on  which  the  picture  is  painted, 
in  an  inverted  position,  by  the  crossing  of  the  rays. 

If  the  eye  of  an  animal  be  prepared  by  cutting  away 
the  sclerotic  coat,  and  optic  nerve  on  the  back  side,  so 
as  to  make  this  part  thin  and  transparent,  objects  seen 
through  it  appear  in  the  form  of  an  inverted  picture  on 
the  retina. 

This  fact,  together  with  the  known  effect  of  the  con- 
vex lens  to  invert  the  images  of  objects,  is  sufficient 
to  prove,  beyond  all  doubt,  that  the  image  is  inverted  on 
the  retina.  This  might  perhaps,  at  first  thought,  be 
considered  as  an  imperfection  in  the  eye,  but  we  find 
that  nature  always  attains  her  objects  by  the  most  direct 
and  simple  means.  Another  lens  placed  in  the  focus  of 
the  crystalline,  would  have  corrected  this  inversion ;  and 
we  find  that  finite  mechanics  resort  to  this  method  in 
the  construction  of  terrestrial  telescopes  ;  that  is,  they 
add  one  more  glass  on  purpose  to  correct  the  inversion 
of  objects.  But  it  is  well  known  that  this  additional 
glass  always  proves  an  imperfection  in  the  instrument 
on  other  accounts,  since  every  glass,  however  perfect  it 
may  appear,  still  intercepts  a  portion  of  the  light.  In 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    VISION.  171 

the  eye  the  cause  of  this  imperfection  is  avoided,  and 
this  too,  without  the  least  inconvenience  to  ourselves, 
since  no'one  in  health,  has  ever  yet  complained  of  the 
slightest  difficulty  in  making  the  highest  parts  of  objects 
appear  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  whether  he  knew  that  he  saw  them  in  another 
position  or  not. 

Now  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  our  Crea- 
tor, all  things  considered,  has  constructed  us  on  the  wis- 
est and  best  plan,  and  therefore  that  he  chose  so  to  en- 
dow us,  whether  by  a  peculiar  faculty  or  not,  as  to  see 
things  as  they  exist,  though  they  are  inverted  in  the  eye, 
rather  than  to  correct  this  inversion  by  an  additional 
lens.  This  seerns  to  be  the  only  explanation  which  it  is 
necessary  to  give  this  subject,  for  although  physiologists 
have  puzzled  themselves  to  show  how  it  is,  that  we  see 
objects  as  we  do,  when  all  agree  that  the  structure  of 
the  eye  inverts  them  ;  still  we  can  discern  no  more  dif- 
ficulty in  this  phenomenon,  that  we  do  in  the  fact,  that  an 
engraver  reverses  all  his  lines,  and  that  a  printer  reads 
his  type  with  the  same  facility  that  he  does  a  printed 
page  ;  both  being  matters  of  habit  and  experience. 

Minuteness  of  the  image  on  the  Retina. — It  would  be 
a  curious,  and  not  uninstructive  subject,  as  displaying  in 
a  very  striking  manner,  the  Wisdom  and  Power  of  God, 
in  the  mechanism  of  his  creatures,  to  estimate  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  images  of  different  objects,  at  various  dis- 
tances, on  the  retina,  if  indeed  this  could  be  done  with 
any  accuracy. 

The  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve  which  forms  the 
seat  of  vision,  is  only  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  yet,  on  this  space  is  painted  with  the  most  perfect 
accuracy  the  image  of  every  object  which  the  eye  be- 
holds. Now  the  eye  in  an  elevated  situation  may  look 
on  the  whole  of  a  landscape  to  the  distance  of  fifty  miles; 
and  without  perceptibly  moving  the  visual  organs,  in- 
clude a  lateral  view  of  probably  twenty-five  miles ; 
and  yet  the  whole  of  this  extent,  must  be  pictured  on 

How  might  the  inversion  of  the  picture  on  the  retina  have  been  cor- 
rected ?  W  hy  do  we  see  things  perpendicularly  1 


172  SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

the  diameter  of  half  an  inch  at  the  same  instant,  other- 
wise it  could  not  be  seen  at  the  same  view. 

The  Rev.  Dr.  Dick,  in  his  "  Christian  Philosopher/' 
a  work  which  should  be  read  by  all  mankind,  has  calcu- 
lated that  a  portion  of  the  Castle  of  Edinburgh,  equal 
to  500  feet  long,  and  90  in  height,  occupies  on  the  retina 
only  the  twelve  hundred  thousandth  part  of  an  inch, 
when  seen  at  a  certain  distance,  and  yet  every  part  was 
distinctly  visible.  What  then  might  be  the  dimensions 
of  the  picture  of  a  fixed  star  on  the  same  organ  ? 

Mr.  Roget  in  his  "  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology," 
speaking  of  this  organ,  says,  "  few  spectacles  are  more 
calculated  to  raise  our  admiration  than  this  delicate  pic- 
ture, which  nature  has,  with  such  exquisite  art,  and  with 
the  finest  touches  of  her  pencil,  spread  over  the  smooth 
canvass  of  this  subtle  nerve ;  a  picture,  which"  though 
scarcely  occupying  a  space  of  half  an  inch  in  diameter, 
contains  the  delineation  of  a  boundless  scene  of  earth 
and  sky,  full  of  all  kinds  of  objects,  some  at  rest,  and 
others  in  motion,  yet  all  accurately  represented,  as  to 
their  forms,  colors  and  positions,  and  followed  in  all  their 
changes,  without  the  least  interference,  irregularity, 
or  confusion.  Every  one  of  those  countless  and  stu- 
pendous orbs  of  fire,  whose  light,  after  travelling  im- 
measurable regions  of  space,  at  length  reaches  our  eye, 
is  collected  on  its  narrow  curtain  into  a  luminous  focus 
of  inconceivable  minuteness  ;  and  yet  this  almost  infi- 
nitesimal point  shall  be  sufficient  to  convey  to  the  mind, 
through  the  medium  of  the  optic  nerve,  and  brain,  a 
knowledge  of  the  existence  and  position  of  a  far  distant 
luminary,  from  which  that  light  has  emanated.  How 
infinitely  surpassing  all  the  limits  of  our  conception  must 
be  the  intelligence,  and  power  of  that  Being,  who  plan- 
ned and  executed  an  instrument  comprising,  within 
such  limited  dimensions,  such  vast  powers  as  the  eye,  of 
which  the  perceptions  comprehend  alike  the  nearest, 
and  most  distant  objects,  and  take  cognizance  at  once  of 
the  most  minute  portions  of  matter,  and  of  bodies  of  the 
largest  magnitude  !  Bridgewater  Treatise,  vol.  2.  p.  476. 


MOTIONS    OF    THE    EYE.  173 

MOTIONS    OF    THE    EYE. 

The  socket  of  the  Eye  is  considerably  larger  than  the 
ball  itself,  the  space  between  them  being  lined  with  a  soft 
cellular  substance,  in  which  the  eye  easily  turns  in  all 
directions.  At  the  anterior  part  of  the  cavity  are  in- 
serted the  muscles  which  give  motion  to  the  ball. 

A  view  of  these  muscles  with  their  attachments  to 
the  different  parts  of  the  ball,  but  separated  from  the 
other  parts,  is  given  in  Fig.  103.  Four  of  these  pro- 
Fig.  104. 


ceed  in  a  straight  course  from  the  bottom  of  the  orbit, 
arising  from  the  margin  of  the  aperture  through  which 
the  optic  nerve  passes,  and  being  inserted  by  a  broad 
tendinous  expansion  into  the  fore  part  of  the  sclerotic 
coat.  Three  of  these  are  marked  a,  b,  c,  in  the  figure  ; 
the  edge  of  the  fourth  being  seen  above  and  behind  b. 
These  straight  muscles,  as  they  are  called,  surround  the 
optic  nerve  and  the  eye-ball,  forming  four  longitudinal 
bands  ;  one,  a,  being  situated  above,  for  the  purpose  of 
turning  the  eye  upwards  ;  a  second  c,  situated  below, 
for  turning  the  ball  downwards ;  the  two  others,  b,  and 
its  antagonist,  perform  the  lateral  motions  from  right  to 
left. 

Besides  these  straight  muscles,  the  figure  shows  two 
others,  s,  and  i,  termed,  from  the  manner  in  which  they 
act,  oblique  muscles.  When  these  act  together,  they 


What  are  the  directions  in  which  the  straight  muscles  move  the  eye 
ball  1    What  motion  do  the  oblique  muscles  give  the  eye  ball  ? 

15* 


174  SENSORIAL    ^UNCTION  &r 

draw  the  eye  forwards,  serving  as  antagonists  to  the 
straight  muscles.  The  upper  oblique  muscle  s9  is  very 
remarkable  for  its  anatomical  structure.  Its  tendon 
passes  through  a  little  aperture  in  a  piece  of  cartilage, 
which  is  fastened  to  the  upper  margin  of  the  orbit. 
The  tendon  then  turns  back,  forming  a  complete  pulley, 
and  is  inserted  into  the  upper  side  of  the  eye-ball  as 
seen  in  the  figure.  It  is  obvious  that  the  effect  produc- 
ed by  the  contraction  of  this  muscle,  is  exactly  contrary 
to  that  of  the  action  of  its  fibres. 

This  muscle  affords  another  instance  of  that  simplicity, 
effect  and  design,  which  we  so  often  meet  with  in  the 
study  of  nature,  and  especially  in  the  mechanism  of  the 
human  frame.  Taking  the  contiguous  parts  as  they  are, 
in  no  other  situation  could  this  muscle  have  been  placed, 
without  interfering  with  the  action  of  some  other  part,  nor 
could  any  other  construction,  occupying  the^  same  limit- 
ed space,  have  been  devised  to  answer  the  same  pur- 
pose, being  made  to  pull  in  a  direction  contrary  to  its 
own  action. 


MAGNITUDES  AND  DISTANCES  OF  OBJECTS. 

An  inquiiy  into  the  philosophy  of  vision  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  in  what  manner  we  are  able  to  appreciate 
the  distance  of  an  object  by  its  apparent  magnitude,  to- 
gether with  the  subject  of  perspective,  and  the  phenomena 
of  vision  generally,  would  lead  us  far  beyond  the  limits 
of  this  work.  We  will  however  cite  two  or  three 
curious  cases,  in  order  to  show  how  far  we  are  able  to 
gain  a  knowledge  of  the  forms,  magnitudes,  and  distan- 
ces of  things  without  the  aid  of  the  eyes.  So  far  as 
any  of  us  can  remember,  we  have  always  been  able  to 
form  a  judgment  of  the  forms,  distances,  and  magnitudes 
of  objects,  by  the  eye,  and  especially  with  respect  to 
those  which  are  not  at  very  remote  distances.  But 
how  far  these  distances  are  appreciated  by  walking  from 


Describe  the  upper  oblique  muscle  of  the  eye,  and  show  its  use  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  mechanism  of  these  muscles  7 


MAGNITUDES    AND    DISTANCES    OF    OBJECTS.  175 

one  object  to  another  ;  and  how  much  we  are  indebted 
to  examination  by  the  touch,  for  our  knowledge  of  their 
forms,  or  howT  much  our  judgment  of  their  magnitudes 
depend  on  comparisons,  perhaps  with  our  own  persons, 
we  are  unable  to  determine.  These  cases  show,  that  we 
are  dependent  for  this  kind  of  knowledge,  in  a  great 
measure  on  former  experience. 

Chesselderfs  Case. — This  was  the  case  of  a  young 
gentleman  who  was  born  blind,  or  lost  his  sight  so  early 
and  so  entirely,  that  he  had  no  remembrance  of  ever 
having  seen  any  object,  whatever,  until  he  was  fourteen 
years  of  age.  His  disease  was  a  cataract  in  each  eye, 
and  at  this  age  it  was  couched,  as  the  operation  is  called, 
and  by  which,  his  sight  was  restored. 

"  When  he  first  saw,"  says  Chesselden,  "  he  was  so 
far  from  making  any  judgment  about  distances,  that  he 
thought  all  objects  whatever,  touched  his  eyes,  (as  he 
expressed  it,)  as  what  he  felt  did  his  skin,  and  thought  no 
objects  so  agreeable  as  those  which  were  smooth  and 
regular,  though  he  could  form  no  judgment  of  their 
shape,  or  guess  what  it  was  in  any  object  that  was  plea- 
sing to  him.  He  knew  not  the  shape  of  any  thing,  nor 
any  one  thing  from  another,  however  different  in  shape 
or  magnitude ;  but  upon  being  told  what  things  were, 
whose  forms  he  knew  before,  from  feeling,  he  would 
carefully  observe,  that  he  might  know  them  again  :  but 
having  too  many  objects  to  learn  at  once,  he  forgot 
many  of  them  ;  and  (as  he  said,)  at  first,  he  learned  to 
know,  and  again  forgot  thousands  of  things  in  a  day.  At 
first,  he  could  bear  but  very  little  light ;  and  the  things 
he  saw,  he  thought  extremely  large,  but  upon  seeing 
things  larger,  those  first  seen,  he  considered  less,  never 
being  able  to  imagine  any  lines  beyond  the  bounds  which 
he  saw  ;  the  room  he  was  in,  he  said,  he  knew  to  be  but 
a  part  of  the  house,  yet  he  could  not  conceive  that 
the  whole  house  could  look  larger."  His  cat,  which  of 
course  he  knew  perfectly  well  by  feeling,  he  did  not 
know  by  sight,  and  being  told  what  it  was,  closed  his 
eyes,  to  ascertain  the  truth  in  his  usual  manner. 

Mr.    Wardrop's  Case.— A  case  in  many   respects, 


176  SENSORIA.L    FUNCTIONS. 

much  more  interesting  than  Chesseldens,  and  described 
more  in  detail,  was  laid  before  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  in  1826,  by  Mr.  Wardrop,  a  celebrated  oculist. 
This  was  the  case  of  a  lady  born  blind,  but  who  recei- 
ved her  sight  at  the  age  of  46,  by  the  formation  of  an 
artificial  pupil. 

After  a  third  operation,  which  Mr.  Wardrop  perform- 
ed for  the  artificial  pupil,  she  returned  from  his  house 
in  a  carriage,  with  her  eye  covered  only  with  a  loose 
piece  of  silk.  The  first  thing  she  noticed  was  a  hack- 
ney coach  passing  by,  when  she  exclaimed,  "  What  is 
that  large  thing  that  has  just  passed  by."  In  the  course 
of  the  evening  she  requested  her  brother  to  show  her 
his  watch,  which  she  looked  at  for  some  time,  holding  it 
close  to  her  eye.  She  was  asked  what  she  saw,  to 
which  she  answered,  "  that  there  was  a  dark  and  a 
bright  side  ;"  she  pointed  to  the  hour  of  twelve,  arid 
smiled.  Her  brother  asked  her  if  she  saw  any  thing 
more  ;  she  replied,  yes,  and  pointed  to  the  hands  of 
the  watch.  She  then  looked  at  the  chain  and  seals,  and 
observed  that  one  of  the  seals  was  bright,  which  was 
the  case,  being  a  solid  piece  of  rock  crystal. 

On  the  third  day  she  observed  the  doors  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  street,  and  asked  if  they  were  red : 
they  were  of  an  oak  color.  In  the  evening  she  looked 
at  her  brother's  face,  and  said  she  saw  his  nose  :  he 
asked  her  to  touch  it,  which  she  did  ;  he  then  slipped  a 
handkerchief  over  his  face,  and  asked  her  to  look  again, 
when  she  playfully  pulled  it  off. 

On  the  thirteenth  day  of  the  operation,  she  walked  out 
with  her  brother  in  the  streets  of  London,  when  she 
distinctly  distinguished  the  street  from  the  foot  pave- 
ment, and  stepped  from  one  to  the  other  like  a  person 
accustomed  to  the  use  of  the  eyes. 

"  Eighteen  days  after  the  operation,"  says  Mr.  Ward- 
rop," I  attempted  to  ascertain,  by  a  few  experiments,  her 
precise  notions  of  color,  size,  and  forms,  positions,  mo- 
tions, and  distances  of  external  objects.  As  she  could 
only  see  with  one  eye,  nothing  could  be  ascertained 
respecting  the  question  of  double  vision.  She  evidently 
saw  the  difference  of  colors ;  that  is,  she  received,  and 
was  sensible  of  different  impressions  from  different  col- 


MAGNITUDES    AND    DISTANCES    OF    OBJECTS.  177 

ors.  When  pieces  of  paper,  one  and  a  half  inches 
square,  differently  colored,  were  presented  to  her,  she 
not  only  distinguished  them  from  one  another,  but  gave 
a  decided  preference  to  some  colors,  liking  the  yellow 
most,  and  then  pale-pink. 

When  desirous  of  examining  an  object,  she  had  con- 
siderable difficulty  in  directing  her  eye  to  it,  and  finding 
out  its  position,  moving  her  hand,  as  well  as  her  eye  in 
various  directions,  as  a  person,  when  blindfolded,  in  the 
dark,  gropes  with  his  hand  for  what  he  wishes  to  touch. 

She  saw  objects  upright  as  we  do,  and  not  inverted. 
She  seemed  to  have  the  greatest  difficulty  in  finding  out 
the  distance  of  any  object,  for  when  the  thing  was  held 
close  to  her  eye,  she  would  search  for  it,  by  stretching 
her  hand  far  beyond  its  position,  while  on  other  occa- 
sions she  grasped,  close  to  her  own  face,  for  objects 
far  remote. 

From  these  cases,  we  may  infer  how  faint  the  con- 
ceptions of  the  unfortunate  blind  must  be  to  the  charms 
and  beauties  of  the  external  world,  and  yet  having 
never  enjoyed  the  pleasures  which  we  derive  from 
sight,  and  therefore  being  unable  to  compare  their  own 
conditions  with  ours  in  this  respect,  they  are  far  from 
feeling  that  regret  at  their  own  situation,  which  we 
should,  if  deprived  of  sight.  Indeed,  we  believe  that 
most  persons  who  never  have  enjoyed  this  sense,  con- 
sider their  condition  by  far  less  deplorable  than  that 
of  the  deaf  and  dumb. 

Insensibility  to  certain  colors. — Sir  David  Brewster 
has  collected  a  number  of  instances  in  which  the  eyes 
of  persons  were  either  totally  insensible  to  certain  col- 
ors, or  mistook  one  for  another,  although  in  every  other 
respect,  the  visual  organs  were  quite  perfect.  Some  of 
these  cases  are  the  following. 

Mr.  Scott,  who  describes  his  own  case  in  the  Philo- 
sophical Transactions  mistook  pink  for  pale  blue,  and  a  full 
red  for  a  full  green.  This  was  a  family  defect,  since  Mr. 
Scott's  father,  his  maternal  uncle,  one  of  his  sisters,  and 
her  two  sons  all  mistook  these  colors  exactly  in  the  same 
manner. 

A  Shoemaker,  named  Harris,  could  only  distinguish 


178 


SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 


black  and  white  ;  and  when  a  child,  never  could  distin- 
guish the  cherries  on  the  tree  from  the  leaves,  except  by 
their  shape  and  size.  The  eyes  of  two  of  his  brothers 
were  equally  defective. 

A  tailor  at  Plymouth,  as  described  by  Mr.  Harvey  of 
the  same  place,  regarded  the  seven  prismatic  colors  as 
consisting  of  only  yellow  and  light  blue.  In  other 
respects  he  could  only  distinguish  with  certainty  gray, 
white,  and  yellow.  This  defect  sometimes  led  him  to 
ludicrous  mistakes  in  his  business.  Thus,  on  one  occa- 
sion he  repaired  a  black  silk  garment  with  crimson,  and 
on  another  he  patched  the  elbow  of  a  blue  coat,  with  a 
piece  of  crimson  cloth. 

A  still  more  ludicrous  case  is  given  by  Dr.  Nichol,  of 
an  officer  in  the  British  Navy,  who  purchased  a  blue 
uniform  coat  and  waistcoat,  with  red  breeches  to  match. 
Mr.  Dugald  Stewart  was  unable  to  distinguish  any  dif- 
ference between  the  scarlet  color  of  the  Siberian  crab 
apple,  and  the  leaves  of  the  tree. 

Mr.  Troughton,  the  celebrated  optician,  can  distin- 
guish with  certainty  only  blue  and  yellow. 

No  satisfactory  solution  has  been  given  of  the  cause 
of  these  defects. 


COMPARATIVE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    VISION. 

The  lowest  orders  of  animals,  have  no  organs  of  vi- 
sion which  have  ever  been  detected,  and  yet  some  of 
them  have  been  supposed  to  be  in  a  slight  degree  sensi- 
ble to  the  impression  of  light.  Thus  it  is  said,  the  Me- 
dusa?, in  a  calm  sea,  are  seen  to  rise  towards  the 
surface,  until  coming  within  the  full  influence  of  the 
sun's  rays,  they  descend  again  before  any  part  of  their 
bodies  come  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere.  The 
cause  of  the  descent,  and  the  reason  why  they  never 
expose  their  bodies  above  the  water,  has  been  supposed 
to  arise  from  the  distinction  they  are  able  to  make, 
between  the  light  near  the  surface  and  that  of  the  deep 
sea.  It  is  most  probable,  however,  that  these  animals 
are  guided  by  the  pressure  of  the  water,  rather  than  by 
the  impression  of  light. 


COMPARATIVE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    VISION.  179 

In  the  Snail,  the  eye  is  situated  at  the  extremity  of 
the  tentacula  or  feeler. 

Eyes  of  Insects. — Nearly  all  the  Insects  are  furnished 
with  organs  of  vision  either  in  the  larva,  or  perfect 
state,  and  many  of  them  in  both. 

Many  Insects  are  furnished  with  two  kinds  of  eyes, 
one  kind  being  situated  on  each  side  of  the  head,  and 
so  large  as  not  to  escape  common  observation.  These 
are  called  compound  eyes.  The  others  are  three  in  num- 
ber and  are  situated  on  the  top  of  the  head,  obliquely 
behind,  and  between  these.  These  are  called  stemmata. 
They  are  either  in  a  row,  or  in  the  form  of  a  triangle. 

The  structure  of  the  stemmata  has  been  minutely 
examined  by  Professor  Muller,  who  has  ascertained 
that  they  contained  a  hard  crystalline  lens,  a  vitreous 
humor,  and  a  choroid  coat,  the  whole  being  covered 
externally  by  a  hard  convex  coat.  In  Wasps,  Bees, 
and  Bugs,  these  parts  are  distinguished  by  the  naked 
eye,  and  so  far  as  external  form  and  appearance  are 
concerned,  may  be  satisfactorily  examined  by  a  common 
magnifier. 

In  the  spider  the  stemmata  are  of  considerable  size, 
their  number  being  generally  eight,  and  their  situation 
on  the  top  of  the  head,  where  they  are  disposed  with 
much  regard  to  symmetry. 

The  compound  eyes  of  Insects  are  among  the  most 
complex  and  curious  organs  which  the  animal  kingdom 
presents.  In  some  tribes,  as  in  the  Wasps  and  Dragon 
fly  they  cover  a  large  portion  of  each  side  of  the  head, 
and  although  when  only  slightly  examined  they  present 
a  smooth  outside,  and  appear  each  as  a  single  eye,  yet 
they  are  formed  of  a  vast  number  of  separate  cylinders 
or  elongated  cones  closely  packed  together,  each  being 
a  distinct  eye,  and  capable  of  perfect  vision.  The  exte- 
rior of  each  tube  is  a  hexagon,  a  form  which  admits  of 
the  closest  arrangement,  like  the  cells  of  a  honey-comb. 

The  number  of  these  cylinders  differ  much  in  differ- 
ent Insects.  In  the  Ant  they  are  only  50  ;  in  some  of 

What  are  the  two  kinds  of  eyes  with  which  insects  are  furnished  call- 
ed 1  What  are  their  situations  ?  Give  a  description  of  the  compound 
eye  of  an  insect. 


180 

the  Beetlei 
Worm  Mo 
and  in  som 
The  appi 
lontha,  Yel 
fied  is  show 


Pic.  10G. 


sects  such  a  number  of  eyes,  is 
evidently  that  they  may  be  enabled 
to  see  in  all  directions  without 
moving  the  eye  ball  or  head,  as 
will  be  shown  directly. 

Magnified  Eye  of  a  Butterfly. — In  the  Phalena  a 
genus  of  Butterflies,  and  in  some  other  tribes,  the  little 
eyes  are  arranged  into  squares  in- 
stead of  hexagons,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
106.  The  design  of  this  variety  in 
different  species  is  unknown,  but  un- 
doubtedly some  purpose  of  conve- 
nience to  the  Insect  is  answered  by 
it. 

Structure  of  the  Compound  Eyes  of  Insects. — Natu- 
ralists have  investigated  with  great  care  and  considera- 
ble labor  the  structure  of  the  compound  eyes  of  Insects. 
The  following  account  of  the  mechanism  of  the  eye  of 
the  Libellula  vulgata,  or  grey  Dragon-fly,  is  the  result 
of  the  observations  of  M.  Duges,  a  French  naturalist. 
The  figures  of  course  are  magnified,  some  of  them 
many  hundred  times. 

The  whole  outside  surface  of  the  compound  eye  c  c, 
Fig.  106,  may  be  considered  as  corresponding  to  the 
cornea  of  animals.  Each  separate  division  of  this  part 
in  Insects  is  called  corneule,  or  little  cornea.  These 
are  shown  by  the  waved  line  on  the  circumference  of 


COMPARATIVE    PHYSIOLOGY   OP   VISION. 


181 


Fig.  107.  the  figure.      They  are   of  a 

horny  texture  and  perfectly 
transparent.  Each  corneule 
has  the  form  of  a  truncated 
pyramid,  the  length  of  which, 
is  between  two  and  three  times 
the  diameter  of  the  base. 

These  little  eye  glasses  as 
shown  by  the  figure,  stand 
around  the  nervous  bulb  g, 
which  may  be  considered  the 
retina,  or  optic  ganglion,  and 
on  which  is  painted  the  images  of  objects,  as  they  are  on 
the  retina  of  animals  ;  each  corneule  being  of  itself  a 
perfect  eye,  and  according  to  Duges  furnished  with  a 
pupil,  which  he  saw  contracting  and  dilating  in  propor- 
tion to  the  quantity  of  light. 

Fig.  108  represents  some  of  these  tubes  more  highly 
magnified,  in  order  to  show  their  precise  forms.     The 


letters  u,  v,  x,  in  this,  and  the  last  figure  corresponds. 
The  dark  part  is  a  black  pigment  which  fills  a  portion 
of  the  diameter  of  each  tube,  the  aperture  widening  at 
v,  where  it'is  filled  with  a  vitreous  humor. 

It  thus  appears  that  each  eye  forming  these  vast 
aggregates,  consists  of  a  distinct  tube  furnished  with  all 
the  anatomical  parts  necessary  for  perfect  vision ;  and 
thus  has  nature  supplied  the  want  of  motion  in  this 
organ  by  a  multiplication  of  their  numbers,  so  that  the 
Insect  has  a  distinct  eye,  pointed  towards  the  object,  in 
whatever  direction  it  may  appear. 

That  there  might  be  no  doubt,  that  Insects  have  33 

many  eyes  as  there  are  tubes  in  each,  Leeuwenhoek, 

having  prepared  the  compound  cornea  of  a  fly  for  the 

purpose,  placed  it  a  little  more  remote  from  his  micro- 

16 


182  SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 

scope  than  when  he  would  examine  an  object;  and 
looked  through  both  in  the  manner  of  a  telescope,  at  the 
steeple  of  a  church,  which  was  299  feet  high,  and  750 
feet  distant,  and  could  plainly  see  through  every  little 
lens,  the  whole  steeple  inverted,  though  not  larger  than 
the  point  of  a  fine  needle :  and  then  directing  this  curi- 
ous optical  instrument  towards  a  house,  he  saw,  not 
only  the  front,  but  also  the  doors  and  windows,  and 
could  plainly  discern  through  each,  whether  they  were 
open  or  closed. 

Eyes  of  Fishes. — In  the  Fishes,  the  cornea  is  nearly 
flat,  as  is  the  case  with  all  aquatic  animals.  This  is  an 
adaptation  to  the  element  in  which  they  live,  for  since 
there  is  little  difference  between  the  density  of  the 
water  and  the  cornea,  there  would  be  but  little  refrac- 
tive power  in  this  part,  were  its  convexity  ever  so  great. 
The  refraction  is  therefore  chiefly  performed  by  the 
crystalline  lens,  which  has  great  power,  in  this  respect, 
its  form  being  spherical,  and  its  texture  of  great  density, 
properties  designed  to  bring  the  rays  to  a  focus  at  a  very 
short  distance,  the  whole  eye  being  flat  instead  of  oblong 
through  the  axis  as  in  land  animals. 

This  structure  is  shown  by  Fig.  110,  which  repre- 
sents the  eye  of  the  Perch ;   c,  being  the  flat  cornea ;  Z, 
Fi    109         ^e  sP^erical  lens  ;    v,  the  vitreous  hu- 
mor ;  r,  the  retina  ;   o,  the  optic  nerve  ; 
s,  the  sclerotic  coat,  and  k,  a  part  called 
the  choroid  gland,  shaped  like  a  horse 
shoe,  but  the  use  of  which  is  entirely 
unknown. 

The  eyes  of  Fishes  being  continually 
washed  by  the  element  in  which  they 
live,  require  no  glands  to  secrete  a  fluid 
for  moistening  them ;     or  any  eyelids  to  prevent  the 
dust  from  flying  into  them. 

Remarkable  structure  of  the  Lens  of  the  Cod-fish. — 
Sir  David  Brewster  has  recently  made  an  analysis  of 
the  structure  of  the  crystalline  lens  of  the  Cod-fish,  to 
which  he  was  led  by  noticing  some  remarkable  optical 
appearances  presented  by  thin  layers  of  this  substance. 


COMPARATIVE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF   INSECTS.  183 

He  found  that  the  hard  central  portion  is  composed  of 
a  succession  of  concentric,  and  perfectly  transparent, 
spheroidal  laminae,  the  surfaces  of  which,  though  appa- 
rently smooth,  have  the  same  kind  of  irridescence  as  the 
shell  called  mother  of  pearl,  and  arising  from  the  same 
cause,  namely,  the  occurrence  of  regularly  arranged 
lines,  forming  a  striated  surface,  but  so  fine  as  to  be 
detected  only  by  a  powerful  magnifier.  These  lines 
which  mark  the  edges  of  the  separate  fibres,  composing 
each  lamina,  converge  like  meridians  from  the  equator 
towards  the  two  poles  of  the  spheroid. 

This  appearance,  magnified,  is  shown  by  Fig.  110, 
where  it  will  be  observed  that  these  fine  lines  converge 
to  a  centre  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
figure.  The  fibres  themselves  are 
not  cylindrical  but  flat ;  and  they  ta- 
per at  each  end,  as  they  approach 
the  points  of  convergence.  The 
breadth  of  the  fibres  in  the  most  ex- 
ternal layer,  at  the  equator,  is  about 
the  5,500th  part  of  an  inch. 

Having   his  curiosity  excited  by 
this  singular  structure,  Sir  David  Brewster  continued 
his  miscroscopic  observations  on  the  same  substance, 
and  by  using  a  very  high  power  he  further  discovered 
that  these  fibres  are  locked  together  at  the  edges  by  a 
series  of  teeth,  resembling  those 
of  rack  work,  as  represented  by 

JWliMlUmliMl'.M'.'.W',.  W    Ni  I*1    fflffl  M     T'',.']          .  *          1         r*I  1/»  IA! 

m  a  single  fibre  and  found  that 
they  amounted  to  12,500,  and  as 
he  ascertained  that  the  whole 
lens  contained  about  5,000,000 
of  fibres,  the  whole  number  of 

these  teeth  in  a  single  lens  amounts  to  the  number  of 

62,500,000,000. 

Structure  of  the  Eyes  of  Birds. — The  eyes  of  Birds 
are  very  large  when  compared  with  the  head,  or  with 
those  of  the  other  animals  of  the  same  sizes. 

"What  is  said  of  the  eyes  of  birds  1 


184 


SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 


The  chief  peculiarities  in  the  eyes  of  these  animals, 
are  apparently  designed  to  accommodate  their  vision  to 
a  rare  medium  ;  to  strong  degrees  of  light,  and  a  ready 
adjustment  to  objects  situated  at  very  different  distances. 
These  ends  appear  to  be  answered  chiefly  by  the  great 
prominence  of  the  cornea,  or  front  of  the  eye  ball,  which 
contains  an  uncommon  quantity  of  the  aqueous  humor, 
so  that  the  lens  is  situated  far  forward,  or  at  the  greatest 
distance  from  the  retina.  On  optical  principles  this 
arrangement  enables  the  eye  to  see  near  objects  most 
distinctly,  while  at  the  same  time  the  refracting  power 
of  the  lens  becomes  susceptible  of  great  variations. 

The  form  of  the  eye  in  Birds  is  preserved  by  a  bony 
circle,  consisting  of  fifteen  or  twenty  pieces  overlaping 
each  other.  By  these  bones  the  sclerotic  coat  is  sup- 
ported, and  its  hemispherical  prominence  maintained. 

Nictitating  Membrane. — Most  Birds  are  furnished 
with  a  winking  membrane,  (membrana  nictitans^)  which 
they  draw  over  the  eye-ball,  instead  of  closing  the  eye- 
lids. This  is  a  thin  delicate  structure,  so  translucent  as 
to  admit  a  diffused  light,  while  it  intercepts  the  direct 
rays  from  the  eye.  When  not  in  use  it  is  closely  folded 
up  in  the  inner  cornea  of  the  eye. 

This  membrane  is  represented  at 
Fig.  112,  covering  one-half  the  eye- 
ball. Its  motion  is  horizontal,  and  is 
effected  by  two  muscles,  acting  upon 
|7t/  each  other,  by  a  peculiar  and  beauti- 
ful piece  of  mechanism. 

The  first  of  these  muscles  is  called 
from  its  shape,  the  quadratus,  q,  Fig. 
113,  and  arises  from  the  upper  and 
back  part  of  the  sclerotica,  its  fibres 
converging  and  terminating  in  a 
round  tendon  as  seen  in  the  figure. 
This  tendon  serves  as  a  loop  for  that 
of  the  second  muscle  p,  which  is  call- 
ed the  pyramidalis,  and  which  has  its 
origin  on  the  lower,  and  back  part  of 


Fig.  112. 


Fig.  113. 


What  are  the  chief  peculiarities  of  the  eyes  of  birds  7    How  are  the 
objects  of  these  peculiarities  answered  1 


ADDITION.  185 

the  sclerotic^.  The  long  tendon  of  this  muscle  t,  after 
passing  through  the  loop  of  the  other,  which  acts  as  a 
pulley,  is  conducted  through  a  circular  sheath  to  the 
under  part  of  the  eye,  where  it  is  attached  to  the  lower 
portion  of  the  nictitating  membrane.  By  the  joint  action 
of  these  two  muscles,  the  membrane  is  instantly  drawn 
over  the  front  of  the  eye-ball.  Its  return  is  effected  by 
its  own  elasticity,  which  is  sufficient  to  carry  it  back  to 
its  place  in  the  inner  cornea  of  the  eye. 

AUDITION,   OR    HEARING. 

Next  to  the  eye,  the  organs  of  Hearing  are  more  com- 
plex and  refined  than  those  of  any  other  sense.  Indeed, 
certain  parts  of  the  mechanism  of  Audition,  are  not  less 
exquisitely  formed,  or  less  striking  and  wonderful  in 
their  functions  than  the  most  admirable  parts  of  the 
organs  of  vision. 

Principles  of  Acoustics. — Acoustics  is  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  origin,  propagation  and  effects  of 
sound.  For  an  epitome  of  this  science  the  author  must 
refer  to  his  "  System  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  while  at 
present,  only  such  a  view  of  the  subject  will  be  stated, 
as  is  absolutely  necessary,  in  order  to  understand  the 
physiology  of  the  Ear. 

Sound  is  the  result  of  vibratory  motions  in  the  parti- 
cles of  a  sonorous,  or  sounding  body,  which  motions 
are  first  communicated  to  the  air,  and  by  the  air  to  the 
Ear. 

Sound  does  not,  like  light,  pass  through  void  space,  it 
being  proved  by  experiment  that  the  report  of  a  bell, 
struck  in  a  vacuum  is  not  heard,  though  the  blow  is  seen, 
and  near  the  Ear. 

The  sounding  body  gives  an  impulse  to  the  air  in 
every  direction,  and  which  is  propagated  from  one  par- 
ticle to  another,  in  a  circle,  in  the  same  manner  that  the 

What  is  said  of  the  organs  of  hearing  when  compared  with  those  of 
vision*?  What  is  taught  by  the  science  of  acoustics  7  What  is  sound  1 
How  is  sound  communicated  to  the  Ear 7  Does  sound  pass  through  a 
vacuum,  or  not? 

16* 


186  SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 

surface  of  a  calm  lake  is  thrown  into  circular  waves  by 
the  force  of  a  stone  thrown  into  it. 

The  velocity  of  sound  through  the  atmosphere  is  about 
1100,  or  more  nearly  1142  feet  in  a  second.  Hence  we 
see  the  flash  of  a  gun,  and  after  an  interval  depending 
on  the  distance,  hear  the  report.  Thus  in  a  thunder 
storm,  if  we  allow  1100  feet  per  second,  between  the 
time  when  the  flash  of  lightning  is  seen,  and  the  thunder 
heard,  we  may  ascertain  very  nearly  the  distance  of  the 
cloud. 

Solids  and  liquids  convey  sounds  much  more  perfectly, 
and  rapidly,  than  air.  Franklin  found  that  a  sound, 
after  travelling  above  a  mile  through  water,  lost  little  of 
its  intensity,  and  Chladni  states,  that  according  to  his 
experiments,  the  velocity  of  sound  in  water  is  at  the 
rate  of  about  4,900  feet  in  a  second,  being  between  four 
and  five  times  more  rapid  than  it  is  through  the  air. 

In  musical  tones,  if  the  intervals  between  the  vibra- 
tions be  short,  the  tone  is  acute,  if  long,  the  tone  \$  grave. 
Hence  in  the  violin,  and  other  musical  instruments,  the 
strings  designed  for  high  or  acute  notes  are  small,  that 
their  vibrations  may  be  rapid ;  while  those  which  make 
the  low,  or  grave  tones  are  large,  and  sometimes  wound 
around  with  fine  wire,  in  order  to  increase  their  weight, 
and  thus  to  make  them  vibrate  slowly. 

In  musical  tones,  it  is  the  quality,  and  variety  of  the 
sounds  which  give  the  hearer  so  much  pleasure.  The 
string  of  the  Harpsichord  when  fastened  to  a  piece  of 
boaro^  or  to  the  ground,  may  be  made  to  give  the  same 
pitch,  or  grade  of  tone,  with  respect  to  gravity  or  acute- 
ness,  as  when  on  the  instrument,  but  an  instrument  hav- 
ing such  a  quality  of  tone,  would  give  -no  pleasure  to 
the  Ear. 

The  Ear  is  susceptible  of  much  cultivation  with 
respect  to  music,  as  is  the  eye  with  respect  to  painting. 
The  finest  and  most  complex  strains  of  music  are  often 
lost  upon  the  uneducated  Ear,  as  the  noblest  works  of 
the  painter  are  unappreciated  by  the  uncultivated  eye. 
Hence  tones,  and  pictures,  which  raise  the  most  enthu- 

In  what  direction  is  sound  propagated  7  What  is  the  velocity  with 
which  sound  passes  through  the  air  7  How  may  we  tell  the  distance  of 
a  thunder  cloud  7  What  is  said  of  the  propagation  of  sound  by  solids 
and  fluids  1  How  is  grave  or  acute  musical  tones  formed  1. 


AUDITORY    APPARATUS    IN    MAN.  187 

siastic  feelings  in  one,  are  heard  and  seen  by  another 
with  no  sort  of  effect.  It  is  true,  however,  that  there  is 
a  natural  difference  in  these  respects,  and  especially  with 
regard  to  music,  there  being  some  uneducated  Ears 
which  are  able  to  appreciate  the  finest  passages  in  a 
piece,  though  they  never  had  heard  good  music  before. 
This  however,  is  seldom  the  case  with  respect  to  paint- 
ing, deep  impressions  and  good  judgment  being  nearly  in 
every  case  the  result  of  education. 

In  treating  of  hearing,  we  shall,  as  we  have  done 
with  respect  to  vision,  begin  with  that  structure  which 
is  most  highly  developed,  and  best  understood,  the  Hu- 
man Ear. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    AUDITORY    APPARATUS    IN   MAN. 

The  best  summary  on  this  subject  we  have  seen,  for 
the  design  of  this  work,  is  that  of  Mr.  Roget  in  his 
"Bridge  water  Treatise,  on  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physi- 
ology." This,  therefore,  will  form  the  basis  of  the  fol- 
lowing treatise. 

That  part  of  the  organ  of  Hearing,  which,  above  all 
others,  is  essential,  is  the  acoustic  or  auditory  nerve,  of 
which  the  fibres  are  expanded,  and  spread  over  the  sur- 
face of  a  fine  membrane,  placed  in  a  situation  adapted 
to  receive  the  full  impression  of  the  sonorous  undula- 
tions which  are  conveyed  to  them.  This  membrane, 
then,  with  its  nervous  filaments,  which  is  situated  within 
the  labyrinth,  may  be  regarded  as  the  immediate  organ 
of  this  sensev;  all  the  other  parts  constituting  merely  an 
accessory  apparatus,  designed  to  collect  and  condense 
the  vibrations  of  the  surrounding  medium,  and  to  direct 
their  concentrated  action  on  the  auditory  membrane. 

The  principal  parts  of  this  complicated  organ  are 
exhibited  in  Fig.  114,  as  they  exist  in  man,  in  their  rela- 
tive and  of  the  natural  sizes ;  these  parts  will  therefore, 
afford  a  scale  of  real  dimensions  of  those  portions, 
which  will  hereafter  be  explained  by  magnified  views. 

What  is  it  in  musical  tones  that  give  pleasure  7  What  is  said  of  the 
ear  1  Can  some  enjoy  good  music  without  education  1 


188 


SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 


External  Ear. — The  external  Ear,  c,  is  called  the 
concha :  from  this  there  opens  a  funnel-shaped  orifice, 
m,  called  the  meatus  auditorius,  or  orifice  of  the  Ear, 
which  leads  to  the  internal  parts.  At  the  internal 
extremity  of  this  orifice,  and  which  it  closes,  is  situated 
the  Ear-drum,  d,  called  the  tympanum.  Behind  the  Ear- 
drum there  is  a  hollow  space,  t,  called  the  cavity  of  the 
tympanum.  From  this  cavity,  a  trumpet-shaped  tube, 

Fig.  114. 


e,  called  the  Eustachian  tube,  leads  to  the  back  part  of 
the  nostrils,  or  roof  of  the  mouth.  The  parts  marked 
s,  v,  It,  consist  of  several  intricate  winding  passages  call- 
ed the  labyrinth.  This  part  will  be  explained  by  another 
figure.  Connected  with  the  Ear-drurn  there  is  a  chain 
of  moveable  bones  marked  b,  which  are  also  explained 
by  another  figure.  The  auditory  nerve  is  seen  at  n, 
passing  into  the  centre  of  the  labyrinth. 

The  external  Ear  appears  to  be  formed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  collecting  the  sonorous  undulations  of  the  air, 
and  of  directing  them  through  the  canal  to  the  Ear- 
drum. 

The  Ear-drum  is  stretched  across  the  meatus,  or  ori- 
fice of  the  Ear,  like  the  skin  of  a  drum,  whence  its 
name;  and  it  performs  a  corresponding  office ;  for  the 


AUDITORY    APPARATUS    IN    MAX.  189 

undulations  of  the  air  throw  it  into  a  similar  state  of 
vibration.  The  structure  of  this  part  is  muscular,  being 
thus  designed  to  adapt  itself  to  the  force  of  the  vibra- 
tions'communicated  to  it  from  the  external  air. 

The  cavity  of  the  tympanum  t,  behind  the  Ear-drum 
is  always  filled  with  air,  but  it  would  obviously  defeat 
the  design  of  this  organ,  were  the  air  confined  to  this 
space,  because  unless  it  were  in  a  state  to  expand  and 
contract,  it  could  not  remain  in  equilibrium  with  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  external  surface  of 
the  drum,  which  of  course  varies,  according  to  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  barometer.  Hence,  were  this  air  con- 
fined, an  intense  internal  pressure  on  the  drum  would 
be  the  consequence,  whenever  the  external  pressure 
happened  to  be  partially  removed,  as  when  one  ascends 
a  mountain,  or  mounts  up  in  a  balloon.  Against  such 
an  evil,  there  is  an  effectual  guard  by  the  communication 
between  the  internal  Ear,  and  the  atmosphere,  by  means 
of  the  Eustachian  tube,  e.  This  tube,  as  the  figure 
shows,  begins  with  a  small  orifice,  and  opens  with  a 
wide  mouth,  back  of  the  nostrils.  It  performs  the  same 
office  in  the  Ear,  that  the  aperture  in  the  side  of  a  drum 
does  in  that  instrument ;  that  is,  it  forms  a  communica- 
tion writh  the  external  air,  which  appears  to  be  as  neces- 
sary to  the  functions  of  the  Ear,  as  it  is  for  the  sound  of 
the  drum.  When  the  air-hole  of  a  drum  is  stopped, 
the  instrument  not  only  does  not  sound  as  usual,  but  the 
head  is  liable  to  be  broken,  by  the  re-action  of  the  con- 
fined air ;  and  when  the  Eustachean  tube  is  obstructed, 
as  is  often  the  .case  during  influenza,  or  colds,  by  which 
this  part  is  swollen,  or  its  secretion  is  increased  by  inflam- 
mation, then  a  partial  deafness  is  the  consequence. 
This  tube  also  appears  to  be  the  channel  through  which 
sound  may  be  admitted,  or  perhaps  the  hearing  is  more 
perfect  when  there  is  an  ample  communication  between 
the  external  air  and  the  tympanic  cavity,  for  it  is  well 
known  that  when  one  listens  to  a  scarcely  audible  sound 

Where  is  the  ear-drum  situated  1  What  effect  do  the  undulations  of 
the  air  have  upon  the  ear-drum  ?  What  is  the  cavity  within  the  tym- 
panum called  t  What  tube  communicates  with  the  cavity  1  What  would 
be  the  effect  were  the  air  of  this  cavity  confined  1  Why  does  one  open 
his  mouth  in  order  to  hear  a  distant  sound  1 


190  SBNSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

he  instinctively  opens  his  mouth.     When  this  tube  is 
entirely  closed  total  deafness  is  often  the  result. 

Bones  of  the  Ear. — Behind,  or  within  the  interior 
side  of  the  tympanum,  there  is  a  chain  of  very  minute, 
moveable  bones,  of  peculiar  shapes,  seen  of  the  natural 
sizes  at  b.  One  end  of  this  chain  is  fastened  to  the  tym- 
panum, and  the  other,  to  a  part  called  the  fenestra  ova- 
Us,  or  oval  window.  This  latter  part  is  a  membrane 
situated  in  the  cavity  of  the  tympanum,  opposite  to  the 
orifice  of  the  Eustachian  tube,  and  covering  a  cell  in  the 
bone,  called  a  mastoid  cell,  which  cell  is  filled  with  air. 
These  bones,  called  the  tympanic  ossicula,  or  little 
bones  of  the  drum,  are  represented  separate,  and  twice 

their  natural  size,  by  Fig.  115. 
Their  names  have  been  deri- 
ved from  their  shapes  rather 
than  the  offices  they  perform. 
The  first,  m,  is  the  malleus,  or 
hammer,  the  long  handle  h,  of 
which  is  affixed  to  the  ear- 
drum ;  the  second,  i,  is  the 
incus,  or  anvil,  \vhich  some- 
what resembles  in  shape,  a  molar  tooth,  the  crown  of 
which  is  attached  to  the  head  of  the  hammer  ;  the  third, 
o,  is  the  round,  or  orbicular  bone.  This  is  the  smallest 
bone  in  the  human  skeleton,  being  no  larger  than  a  mil- 
let seed,  and  is  situated  between  the  long  process  of  the 
anvil  and  the  next  bone  in  the  number.  The  fourth 
and  last  bone  in  the  chain  is  the  stapes,  or  stirrup,  s, 
which  is  fastened  by  its  base,  or  widest  part  to  the 
fenestra  ovalis. 

These  bones  are  regularly  articulated  with  each  othei^ 
so  as  to  allow  of  motion  between  each  two,  and  their 
office  appears  to  be,  to  transmit  the  vibrations  of  the 
ear-drum  to  the  fenestra  ovalis,  and  probably  also  to 
increase  the  force  of  these  vibrations. 

Labyrinth  of  the  Ear. — We  have  thus  given  a  sun> 


Where  are  the  bones  of  the  ear  situated  1     To  what  parts  are  these 
bones  attached  1     What  are  the  names  of  the  tympanic  ossicula  1 


PHYSIOLOGY    OP    AUDITION    IN    MAN. 


191 


mary  description  of  the  organs  of  audition,  as  far  as 
the  labyrinth,  which  in  Fig.  114,  is  marked,  v,  s,  Ar,  and 
is  there  drawn  of  the  natural  size.  But  in  order  to  give 
any  distinct  conception  of  this  part,  it  is  necessary  to 
represent  it  on  a  larger  scale  which  is  done  by  Fig.  116. 

In  this  figure  the  labyrinth 
is  detached  from  every  oth- 
er  Part»  and  separated  from 
the  solid  bone  in  which  it  is 
embedded.  It  consists  of 
a  middle  portion  called  the 
vestibule,  v,  from  which,  on 
its  upper  and  posterior  side, 
proceed,  the  three  tubes,  x, 
y,  z,  called  from  their  shapes, 
the  semi-circular  canals  ; 
while  the  lower  side  of  the 
vestibule  terminates  in  a  spi- 
ral canal,  resembling  in  ap- 
pearance, or  rather  in  form, 
the  shell  of  a  snail,  k,  and 
on  that  account  is  denomi- 
nated the  cochlea. 

All  these  cavities  are  surrounded  by  solid  bone,  lined 
with  a  very  delicate  membrane  called  the  periosteum,  and 
are  filled  with  a  transparent,  watery  fluid,  called  the 
perilymph.  The  parts  marked  a  «,  are  merely  the 
swellings  of  the  .semi-circular  canals  at  their  junction 
with  the  vestibule.  Within  the  sac  of  t  hevestibule  at 
the  point  o,  there  are  found  two  or  three  masses  of 
chalky,  or  calcareous  matter,  suspended  in  the  fluid  by 
the  intervention  of  some  nervous  filaments,  proceeding 
from  the  auditory  nerve.  These  exist  in  the  Ears  of  all 
the  mammalia,  and  therefore  undoubtedly  perform  some 
important  office,  but  of  what  kind  is  unknown.  They 
are  also  found  in  aquatic  animals,  and  of  a  larger  size 
and  greater  hardness,  than  in  others. 


Where  is  the  labyrinth  of  the  ear  situated  1  What  part  of  the  laby- 
rinth is  the  vestibule  7  What  are  the  semilunar  canals  7  What  part  is 
denominated  cocklea  1 


192  SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    AUDITION    IN    MAN. 

The  uses  of  several  parts  of  the  complex  apparatus 
above  described,  remain  unknown.  The  following, 
however,  appears  to  be  the  manner  in  which  hearing  is 
performed. 

The  sonorous  vibrations  being  transmitted  through 
the  air  to  the  external  Ear,  are  collected  by  its  sinuous 
canals,  and  directed  through  the  auditory  orifice  to  the 
Ear-drum,  which  is  thereby  made  to  vibrate.  The 
action  of  the  tympanum  as  a  muscle  is  undoubtedly 
concerned  in  this  effect,  probably  becoming  more  or  less 
tense  as  the  sound  is  less  or  more  audible.  The  vibra- 
tions of  the  tympanum  are  communicated  through  the 
chain  of  bones  to  the  fenistra  ovalis,  which  being  a  mem- 
brane covering  a  part  of  the  labyrinth,  the  motion  is 
communicated  to  the  fluid  which  the  labyrinth  contains. 
The  undulations  of  the  fluid  thus  excited,  produce  audito- 
ry impressions  on  the  nerves  of  the  ear,  which  are  spread 
over  the  inside  of  the  membrane  lining  the  labyrinth, 
and  by  them  are  conveyed  to  the  brain,  thus  giving  the 
sensation  called  sound. 

The  tympanum  undoubtedly  becomes  more  tense,  by 
the  stimulus  of  sound,  and  hence  in  some  persons,  where 
this  part  is  naturally  lax,  or  has  become  so  by  disease, 
there  is  a  difficulty  of  hearing  low  sounds,  except  when 
the  drum  is  excited  by  louder  ones.  Thus  we  know  a 
person  who  can  distinguish  ordinary  conversation, 
when  walking  in  the  sound  of  the  surf  on  the  sea-shore, 
but  who  hears  with  much  difficulty  even  a  loud  voice  in 
a  silent  place. 

With  regard  to  the  purposes  which  are  answered  by 
the  semi-circular  canals,  and  the  cocklea,  hardly  any 
plausible  conjectures  can  be  offered  ;  yet  no  doubt  can 
be  entertained  of  the  importance  of  all  these  parts  in 
audition  ;  for,  we  find  that  when  we  are  able  fully  to 
understand  the  uses  of  any  piece  of  natural  mechanism, 
every  part  in  one  way  or  another,  serves  to  make  the 

Are  the  uses  of  all  the  parts  of  the  internal  ear  understood  ?  What  is 
the  use  of  the  external  ear  1  What  is  the  use  of  the  tympanum  ?  How 
does  the  tympanum  probably  act  as  a  muscle  7  How  are  the  vibrations 
of  the  ear-drum  communicated  to  vestibule? 


COMPARATIVE    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    HEARING.  193 

whole  the  more  perfect,  and  we  may  presume  therefore, 
that  such  is  the  case  with  respect  to  the  ear. 

It  does  not,  however  appear,  that  the  preliminary 
steps  with  respect  to  the  introduction  of  sonorous  vibra- 
tions into  the  ear,  as  above  described  are"  necessary ; 
nor  that  all  the  parts  usually  concerned  in  the  process 
of  hearing  are  required,  since  Sir  Astley  Cooper  has 
recorded  cases  in  which  hearing  remained  perfect,  after 
the  tympanum  was  destroyed,  and  the  little  bones  lost. 
More  commonly,  however,  the  loss  of  these  parts  pro- 
duce total  deafness  for  a  time,  after  which,  the  power 
of  hearing  is  often  in  a  measure  regained,  and  in  some 
instances  entirely.  It  is  well  known  that  a  puncture 
through  the  ear-drum  does  not  at  all  affect  the  power 
of  that  organ. 

COMPARATIVE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF    HEARING. 

We  have  seen  that  the  organs  of  Circulation,  of  Vis- 
ion, and  of  Respiration,  and  Digestion  all  present  the 
most  simple  structures  in  the  lower  orders  of  animals, 
and  that  all  these  organs  increase  in  complexity,  and 
perfection,  as  animals  rise  in  the  scale  of  capacity  and 
power.  The  organs  of  Hearing  follow  the  same  law  of 
gradation,  the  most  complex  being  found  in  the  higher 
orders  of  animals,  of  which  we  have  an  example  in 
those  of  man.  In  the  inferior  races,  Hearing  is  perform- 
ed by  means  of  a  simple  vestibule  with  its  membranous 
sac,  supplied  with  nervous  filaments  leading  through  the 
auditory  nerve  to  the  brain.  This  simple  form  is  found 
in  most  aquatic  animals,  the  sonorous  undulations  of  the 
water,  requiring  neither  tympanum  nor  bones,  nor  indeed 
any  of  the  complex  accessory  parts  found  in  the  mam- 
malia and  man. 

We  have  seen,  that  according  to  the  experiment  of 
Franklin,  sound  passes  to  a  great  distance  through  water 
without  losing  much  of  its  intensity,  and  according  to 

What  effect  does  the  destruction  of  the  ear-drum  have  upon  the  hear- 
ing 1  What  effect  does  the  puncture  of  the  ear-drum  have  upon  the 
hearing  1  What  is  said  of  the  continuation  of  the  auditory  organs  in  the 
lower  and  higher  orders  of  animals  1  What  does  the  organ  of  hearing  in 
fishes  consist  of? 

17 


194  SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 

the  experiments  of  others,  its  transmission  through  water 
is  more  than  four  times  more  rapid  than  it  is  through 
the  air.  These  facts  assist  us  in  understanding  why  it  is, 
that  no  part  is  required  in  aquatics,  like  the  tympanum 
and  little  bones,  to  increase  the  sonorous  undulations,  and 
also  why  these  organs  in  other  respects,  may  be  reduced 
to  their  utmost  simplicity,  since  the  water  in  which  they 
live  transmits  sound  with  so  little  diminution  of  its  inten- 
sity. 

Hearing  in  the  Lobster. — The   simple  auditory  appa- 
ratus, as  it  is  found  in  the  Lobster,  is  represented  by 
Fig.  117.     It  consists  of  a  vestibular  cavity  at  r,  con- 
Fig.  117. 


taining  a  membranous  sac^,  which  is  furnished  with  the 
filaments  of  the  auditory  nerve.  This  vestibule  is  pro- 
tected on  all  sides  by  solid  matter,  (as  the  same  is  by 
bone  in  the  human  ear,)  except  at  one  part,  e,  where  it 
is  closed  by  a  membrane,  like  the  fenestra  ovalis,  to 
which  part  therefore  it  corresponds.  The  water  com- 
ing in  contact  with  this  membrane,  the  sound  is  trans- 
mitted through  it,  to  the  nerves  of  the  vestibule  and  so  to 
the  brain. 

The  Mollusca  appear  to  be  entirely  destitute  of  the 
sense  of  hearing,  except  perhaps  in  the  highly  organized 
Cephalopoda  or  Cuttle  Fish  tribe.  In  these,  there  exists 
a  tubercle  containing  two  membranous  sacs,  which  cor- 
respond to  the  vestibules  of  other  animals. 

Hearing  in  the  Frog.— In  the  Frog,  the  ear  is  entire- 
ly closed  on  the  outside  by  a  membrane,  situated  over  a 
little  cavity  on  each  side  of  the  head,  but  on  a  level 

Why  is  it  supposed  unnecessary  that  the  vibratory  apparatus  should 
exist  in  aquatics  ? 


COMPARATIVE    PHYSIOLOGY    OP    HEARING.  195 

with  the  integuments.  This  membrane  corresponds  to 
the  ear-drum  of  the  Mammalia,  the  cavity  within,  con- 
taining air.  From  this  cavity  there  proceeds  an  Eusta- 
chian  tube ;  and  from  the  external  membrane  to  the 
vestibule  there  extends  a  small  bone,  shaped  like  a  trum- 
pet, and  called  the  columella. 

These  parts  are  represented  by  Fig.  118  ;  where  c,is 
the  columella  of  an  elegant  trumpet  shape,  having  its 
base,  b,  attached  to  the  fenestra 
ovalis  of  the  vestibule,  v,  and 
which  contains  the  chalky 
body,  o.  There  is  also  a  small 
bone,  i,  appended  to  the  end 
or  front  of  the  columella, 
where  this  is  attached  to  the 
external  membrane,  or  ear- 
drum. 

In  the  Frog,  therefore,  the  sonorous  undulations  of 
the  air,  instead  of  passing  through  an  aperture,  as  in 
man,  strike  the  tympanum  on  the  outside  of  the  head, 
the  vibrations  of  which,  are  communicated  immediately 
to  the  fenestra  ovalis  of  the  vestibule,  and  through  the 
auditory  nerves  spread  over  it,  directly  to  the  brain. 
In  other  amphibia  these  parts  are  essentially  the  same. 

This  mechanism  is  probably  designed  to  enable  the 
animal  to  hear  both  in  air  and  water. 

In  the  fishes  there  is  no  internal  cavity  containing  air, 
as  is  also  the  case  with  the  Lobster,  the  ear  of  which,  as 
we  have  seen,  is  so  contrived  as  to  place  the  fenestra,  or 
window  of  the  vestibule,  which  contains  the  nerves  of 
hearing,  on  the  outside,  so  that  the  sonorous  undulations 
of  the  water  are  communicated  immediately  to  the  audi- 
tory nerves. 

In  the  Frog  there  is  a  communication  from  the  exter- 
nal tympanum  to  the  vestibule  by  a  solid  body,  the  ope- 
ration of  which,  therefore,  does  not  differ  from  that  of 
the  lobster ;  but  in  addition  to  this,  there  is  a  cavity 

What  is  said  of  the  hearing  of  the  mollusca  1  What  description  can 
you  give  of  a  frog's  ears  1  By  what  mechanism  is  the  frog  fitted  to  hear 
both  in  the  air  and  in  water  ? 


196  SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

under  the  tympanum  containing  air ;  this  part  of  the 
apparatus  being  obviously  fitted  for  atmospheric  hearing, 
as  the  other  apparently  is  for  aquatic  hearing  only. 

What  clear  marks  of  design  and  what  wonderful  tra- 
ces of  wisdom  and  goodness  is  evinced  in  the  adapta- 
tion of  these  parts  to  the  wants  and  habits  of  these  poor 
cold  blooded  animals  !  Truly,  "  an  undevout  naturalist 
must  be  mad." 

Hearing  in  Birds. — In  the  Birds  there  is  a  cavity 
beyond  the  tympanum,  as  in  man,  and  the  tympanum 
itself,  instead  of  being  on  the  outside,  lies  concealed  in 
a  short  tube,  without  any  external  ear,  thus  placing  this 
class,  in  respect  to  the  auditory  apparatus,  between  the 
Amphibia  and  Quadrupeds. 

The  ear  of  man  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  the 
interior  structure  of  this  organ  in  the  whole  of  the  oth- 
er Mammalia.  In  Quadrupeds,  the  chief  peculiarity  in 
other  respects  is  in  the  size  and  form  of  the  external 
ear ;  and  from  a  comparison  of  the  relative  size  of 
this  part  in  the  various  tribes,  it  has  been  inferred,  that 
it  bears  a  tolerably  constant  proportion  to  the  degree  of 
acuteness  of  hearing,  and  consequently  that  it  contrib- 
utes essentially  to  that  faculty.  Thus  in  the  rabbit, 
where  the  cochlea  is  uncommonly  long,  and  somewhat 
trumpet-shaped,  the  hearing  is  remarkably  acute.  In 
the  dog  and  horse  this  part  is  well  developed,  and  we 
accordingly  find  a  corresponding  acuteness  of  hearing. 

In  animals  with  long  ears,  there  are  muscles  for  the 
purpose  of  erecting  or  turning  them  towards  the  point 
whence  the  sound  proceeds ;  and  thus  they  have  the 
effect  of  an  ear  trumpet,  in  concentrating  the  sono- 
rous undulations,  from  whatever  direction  they  come. 
Every  one  must  have  observed  the  employment  of  this 
faculty  in  the  horse,  which  always  turns  his  ear  in  the 
direction  of  the  sound.  Hence  it  is,  that  the  leaders  of 
coach  horses  turn  their  ears  forward,  while  those 


What  is  said  of  the  ears  of  birds  7  What  is  the  construction  of  the 
internal  ear  of  the  mammalia  7  Is  there  any  relation  between  the  exter- 
nal ears  of  animals,  and  their  sense  of  hearing  7  Do  men  ever  possess 
the  power  of  turning  their  ears  7 


MUSICAL  EAR. 


behind  them  turn  theirs  backward.  In  a  few  instances, 
men,  like  quadrupeds,  have  had  the  power  of  turning  their 
ears  backwards,  or  forwards  at  pleasure. 


MUSICAL    EAR. 

That  learned  anatomist,  Sir  Everard  Home,  consid- 
ered the  Ear-drum,  with  its  radiated  muscular  fibres  as 
a  sort  of  monochord,  or  rather  perhaps  the  string  of  the 
monochord,  "  of  which  the  tensor  muscles  are  the 
screw,  giving  the  necessary  tension  to  make  the  string 
perform  its  proper  scale  of  vibrations,  and  the  radia- 
ted muscle  acting  upon  the  membrane  like  the  moveable 
bridge  of  the  monochord,  adjusting  it  to  the  vibrations 
required  to  be  produced."  The  same  philosopher  says, 
"  that  the  difference  between  a  musical  Ear,  and  one  that 
is  too  imperfect  to  distinguish  the  different  notes  of  mu- 
sic, will  appear  to  arise  entirely  from  the  greater  or  less 
nicety  with  which  the  muscle  of  the  malleus  renders 
the  membrane  capable  of  being  truly  adjusted.  If  the 
tension  is  perfect,  all  the  variations  produced  by  the 
action  of  the  radiated  muscle  will  be  equally  correct, 
and  the  Ear  truly  musical" 

This  view  of  the  subject  would  make  a  musical  Ear, 
little  more  than  a  fine  piece  of  mechanism,  in  which  the 
mind  has  no  participation.  But  we  cannot  believe  that 
this  is  the  true  doctrine,  for  although  some  Quadrupeds,  it 
is  said,  will  listen  to  the  strains  of  music,  with  seeming 
pleasure,  yet  it  is  most  clearly  through  his  intellect  that 
man  enjoys  that  high  degree  of  gratification,  which 
music  is  capable  of  conferring.  It  is  therefore  in  the 
brain  itself,  that,  what  is  called  the  "  musical  Ear  "  is 
situated,  the  mechanical  apparatus  of  audition  being  in 
this  respect,  merely  the  instrument  by  which  the  sono- 
rous undulations  constituting  melody  are  conveyed  to 
the  soul. 

What  was  Sir  E.  Home's  opinion  with  respect  to  the  action  of  the  ear- 
drum in  forming  a  musical  ear  1  Where  is  it  said  the  musical  ear  is  situ- 
ated 1 

17* 


108  SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

The  charms  of  Music  do  not  depend  on  the  Tympa- 
num. — That  the  charms  of  music  do  not  always  depend 
on  the  vibrations  of  the  tympanum,  is  proved  by  the 
fact  already  noticed,  that  this  part  is  sometimes  entirely 
destroyed  and  still  the  power  of  hearing  is  retained. 

The  case  alluded  to,  is  detailed  by  Sir  Astley  Cooper 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  for  1801,  of 
which  we  will  here  give  a  summary.  The  subject  was 
a  gentleman  who  stated  to  Sir  Astley,  that  at  the  age  of 
ten  years,  he  was  attacked  with  an  inflammation  and 
suppuration  of  the  left  ear,  which  continued  to  discharge 
matter  for  several  weeks.  In  about  a  year  afterwards 
the  right  ear  was  attacked  with  similar  symptoms,  and 
in  consequence  he  became  totally  deaf,  and  remained  so 
for  three  months.  His  hearing  then  began  gradually  to 
return,  and  in  about  ten  months  he  was  restored  to  the 
state  in  which  Sir  Astley  found  him. 

The  ear-drums  were  found  to  be  totally  destroyed, 
together  with  the  little  bones,  which  had  escaped,  with 
the  matter  during  the  suppuration.  Hence  there  was  a 
communication  from  the  mouth,  through  the  Eustachian 
tubes  to  the  external  orifice  of  the  ear.  This  was 
shown  by  filling  his  mouth  with  air,  closing  the  nostrils, 
and  compressing  the  cheeks,  when  the  air  thus  compres- 
sed was  heard  to  rush  out  of  the  external  orifice  with  a 
whirling  sound,  the  hair  on  each  side  of  the  cheeks 
becoming  agitated  by  the  current.  When  a  candle  was 
applied,  the  flame  was  also  agitated  by  the  stream  of  air. 
Sir  Astley  ascertained  by  minute  examination,  that 
not  a  vestige  of  the  tympanum  remained  in  the  left  ear, 
and  that  in  the  right,  though  there  was  a  remnant  of  it, 
around  the  circumference,  the  centre  was  gone,  leaving 
an  aperture  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Yet 
this  gentleman  was  not  only  capable  of  hearing  every 
thing  that  was  said  in  company,  but  was  nicely  suscep- 
tible to  musical  tones.  He  played  well  on  the  flute,  and 
had  frequently  taken  a  part  in  concerts ;  he  also  sung 
with  taste,  and  perfectly  in  tune. 

How  is  it  shown  that  the  charms  of  music,  or  even  common  sounds  do 
not  depend  on  the  vibrations  of  the  tympanum  ? 


;| 

MUSICAL    EAR.  190 


Musical  Ear  situated  in  the  Brain. — But  if  it  be  ob- 
jected, that  the  above  is  a  rare  and  extraordinary  case, 
and  tends  to  prove  that  the  tympanum  may  be  dispensed 
with,  in  ordinary  hearing,  as  well  as  in  the  constitution 
of  a  musical  ear ;  still  setting  this  case  aside,  we  find 
that  those  who  have  no  ears  for  music,  are  equally, 
with  the  most  enthusiastic  amateurs,  capable  of  distin- 
guishing every  kind  of  sound  from  the  full  peel  of  the 
organ  to  the  evanescent  tones  of  the  Eolian  harp.  His 
sense  of  hearing,  therefore  is  equally  perfect,  with  that 
of  a  .most  skilful  musician;  and  consequently  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  his  mere  physical  organ  is 
just  as  nicely  constructed.  Indeed  there  does  not  seem 
to  be  any  relation  between  a  musical  ear  and  mere  deli- 
cacy of  hearing. 

If  these  considerations  be  admitted,  and  it  is  believed 
no  one  will  deny  them,  then  we  must  admit  also  that  the 
soul-stirring  effects  of  harmony  depend  on  the  organi- 
zation of  the  brain,  and  not  on  that  of  the  ear.  And 
this  is  the  opinion  of  several  recent  physiologists  of  the 
first  class.  "  Speech,"  says  Broussais,  "  is  heard,  and 
repeated  by  all  men,  who  are  not  deprived  of  their 
auditory  sense,  because  they  are  all  endowed  with  cere- 
bral organization,  fit  to  procure  for  them  distinct  ideas 
on  the  subject.  Music  when  viewed  as  a  mere  noise,  is 
also  heard  by  every  one ;  but  it  furnishes  ideas  suffi- 
ciently clear  to  be  re-produced  and  communicated  by 
those  individuals  only,  whose  frames  are  organized  in  a 
manner  adapted  to  this  kind  of  sensation." 

Singular  defects  in  certain  Ears. — The  late  Dr. 
Wollaston  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1820, 
describes  several  peculiarities  in  certain  ears,  which 
appear  to  have  no  defects  in  their  organization,  or  capa- 
city of  receiving  common  sounds,  not  even  in  the  per- 
ception of  musical  harmony,  but  are  insensible  to  cer- 
tain acute  sounds.  The  writer  himself  found  that  his 
ear  was  insensible  to  any  sound  higher  than  six 
octaves  above  the  middle  E  of  the  piano.  In  several 
other  persons  he  found  a  similar  insensibility  to  acute 
sounds  of  a  certain  kind.  Thus  some  could  not  hear 


200  SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

the  chirp  of  a  grass-hopper  ;  others  the  sharp  cry  of  a 
bat ;  and  he  refers  to  one  who  was  insensible  to  the  note 
of  the  sparrow. 


ORGANS    OF    SMELL. 

From  nearly  all  bodies  there  escapes  certain  particles, 
which  being  carried  along  by  the  air,  are  taken  into  the 
nostrils  where  they  excite  the  sensation  which  we  call 
odor,  or  smell. 

All  bodies,  the  particles  of  which  are  fixed,  are  called 
inodorous,  that  is,  they  do  not  excite  the  sensation  of 
smell. 

Some  bodies,  it  is  well  known,  fill  the  air  to  great  dis- 
tances with  their  odoriferous  particles,  while  in  others, 
under  ordinary  circumstances  there  is  no  appreciable 
smell. 

Every  odoriferous  body  excites  a  sensation  peculiar 
to  itself,  and  hence  has  a  peculiar  odor. 

We  cannot  describe  an  odor,  except  to  persons  who 
have  themselves  smelled  that  which  we  intend  to  de- 
scribe ;  or  something  with  which  we  can  compare  it. 
Thus,  no  one  could  have  the  least  idea  of  the  smell  of 
camphor,  or  musk,  who  had  not  experienced  it.  The 
terms  aromatic,  or  sweet,  and  rancid,  or  fetid,  are  gene- 
ral terms  intended  to  include  odors  which  are  pleasant 
or  disagreeable,  and  in  these  respects  we  are  able  to 
compare  odors,  so  far  as  to  specify  what  is  agreeable 
and  what  not. 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult  for  us  to  conceive  how  mat- 
ter, so  rare,  and  minute,  as  must  be  the  particles  of  some 
odoriferous  bodies,  can  excite  any  sensation  on  the  ani- 
mal organs.  Thus  a  single  grain  of  musk  will  scent  an 
apartment  for  years,  and  still  not  loose  the  least  appre- 
ciable part  of  its  weight,  though  tried  by  the  nicest 
scales ,  and  it  is  said,  if  a  little  of  this  drug  be  put  into  a 

How  is  it  proved  that  the  appreciation  of  harmony  is  owing  to  effect 
on  the  brain,  and  not  merely  on  the  ear?  What  peculiarities  did  Dr. 
Wollaston  observe  with  respect  to  the  sense  of  hearing  7  What  excites 
the  sense  of  smell  1  What  bodies  are  inodorous'?  "What  is  said  of  the 
description  of  odors  1 


ORGANS    OP    SMELL.  201 

gold  snuff-box,  for  a  short  time,  and  then  the  box  be 
cleansed  with  soap  and  water,  still  it  will  retain  the  odor 
of  musk  for  years. 

The  sense  of  smell  is  conveyed  to  the  brain  by  a  pair 
of  nerves,  called  the  olfactory,  which  are  spread  on  the 
sides  of  the  nostrils. 

Dr.  Magendie  says  that  the  olfactory  apparatus  ought 
to  be  described  as  a  sort  of  sieve,  placed  in  the  passage 
of  the  air,  as  it  is  introduced  into  the  chest,  and  intended 
to  stop  every  foreign  body  that  may  be  mixed  with  the 
air,  particularly  the  odors. 

In  all  the  terrestrial  animals  the  cavity  of  the  nostrils 
is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  vertical  partition,  the 
whole  interior  being  lined  by  a  soft  membrane,  called 
the  schneiderian  or  pituitary  membrane.  This  is  con- 
stantly kept  moist  by  glands  which  secrete  a  fluid  for 
that  purpose. 

This  membrane  is  well  supplied  with  blood  vessels, 
and  with  nerves  from  the  olfactary  pair.  These  nerves 
in  carnivorous  animals  are  much  larger,  than  in  those 
that  live  on  vegetables. 

In  most  animals  the  bony  structure  of  this  part  of  the 
skull  is  exceedingly  intricate,  and  therefore  cannot  be 
described  to  the  understandings  of  those  who  have  no 
previous  knowledge  of  anatomy.  We  must  consequent- 
ly refer  those  of  our  readers  who  wish  to  examine  this 
point  more  particularly,  to  some  treatise  on  that  subject. 
The  best  way,  however,  is  to  take  the  head  of  some 
quadruped,  and  with  a  fine  saw,  divide  the  parts  both 
transversely-  and  longitudinally.  Such  an  examination, 
assisted  by  a  good  description,  will  give  the  general  stu- 
dent all  the  information  he  may  want  on  this  subject  in  a 
few  hours. 

Olfactory  nerves  of  the  Duck. — We  give  a  single  lon- 
gitudinal figure  on  this  subject,  in  which  the  olfactory 
nerves  are  peculiarly  conspicuous,  both  from  their  size 
and  mode  of  distribution.  This  is  the  upper  mandible  of  a 


202  SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

Duck,  Fig.  119,  with  the  olfactories  laid  bare.     They 
pass  out  of  the  orbit  of  the  eye,  o,  in  two  large  branches, 

Fig.  119. 


an  upper  one,  u,  and  a  lower  one,  Z,  the  branches  of 
each  being  spread  over  the  contiguous  parts,  both  with- 
in and  without,  being  merely  protected  by  the  surface, 
except  at  the  extremity  of  the  beak,  where  there  is  a 
horny  process, p,  for  this  purpose. 

Audubon's  Experiments  on  the  olfactory  powers  of  Vul- 
tures.— It  is  the  common  opinion  that  vultures,  and  oth- 
er birds  of  prey  have  the  power  of  smell  so  acute  that 
they  can  discover  by  this  means,  the  effluvia  of  a  carcass 
at  great  distances.  But  it  now  appears  from  the  obser- 
vations and  experiments  of  that  celebrated  ornithologist, 
Mr.  Audubon,  that  these  birds  in  reality  possess  this 
sense  in  a  degree  far  inferior  to  many  of  the  carnivorous 
quadrupeds  ;  and  that  so  far  from  guiding  them  to  their 
prey,  at  a  great  distance,  it  is  hardly  sufficient  to  indi- 
cate its  presence  when  near  at  hand. 

The  following  experiments  appear  satisfactory  on  this 
subject.  Having  procured  the  skin  of  a  deer,  Mr.  Au- 
dubon stuffed  it  full  of  hay,  and  after  the  whole  had 
become  completely  dry  and  hard,  so  as  to  emit  no  smell, 
he  placed  it  in  the  middle  of  an  open  field,  laying  it  on 
the  back,  in  the  posture  of  a  dead  animal.  In  the  course 
of  a  few  minutes  he  saw  a  vulture  approaching  for  a 
feast ;  and  quite  unsuspicious  of  the  deception,  began 
the  attack  as  usual,  in  the  most  vulnerable  part.  But 
finding  nothing  to  his  taste,  it  next,  with  much  exertion 
tore  open  the  seams  of  the  skin,  appearing  earnestly 
intent  on  getting  at  the  flesh,  which  he  expected  to  find 


ORGANS    OF    SMELL.  208 

within,  and  of  the  absence  of  which,  not  one  of  his  sen- 
ses, it  appears,  was  able  to  inform  him. 

Finding  that  his  efforts  after  a  long  trial,  led  to  no 
satisfactory  results,  and  that  nothing  could  be  obtained 
but  a  bundle  of  hay,  the  bird  took  its  flight  in  search  of 
other  game  ;  "  to  which,"  says  the  observer,  "he  was  led 
by  sight  alone,  and  which  he  was  not  long  in  finding." 

Another  experiment,  the  converse  of  this  was  next 
tried.  A  large  dead  hog  was  concealed  in  a  narrow  and 
winding  ravine,  about  twenty  feet  deeper  than  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  around  it,  and  filled  with  briars  and 
high  canes.  This  was  done  in  the  month  of  July  in  a 
tropical  climate,  where  decomposition  took  place  rapid- 
ly. Yet  although  many  vultures  were  seen,  from  time 
to  time  sailing  in  all  directions  over  the  spot,  none  ever 
discovered  it ;  but  in  the  mean  time,  several  dogs  had 
found  their  way  to  it,  before  which,  it  was  fast  disap- 
pearing. 

In  other  experiments  Mr.  Audubon  found  that  young 
vultures  confined  in  a  cage,  never  seemed  to  perceive 
that  their  food  was  near  them,  until  it  was  seen. 

It  therefore  appears  that  vultures  are  guided  to  their 
food  by  the  acuteness  of  their  visual,  and  not  by  their 
olfactory  organs,  as  has  heretofore  been  supposed. 

The  above  results  have  been  fully  verrified  by  Mr. 
Bachman,  and  a  detailed  account  thereof  published  in 
Loudon's  Magazine  of  Natural  History. 

Organs  of  Smell  in  Fishes. — It  has  been  doubted  by 
some  physiologists  whether  water  is  capable  of  convey- 
ing odoriferous  particles,  and  consequently,  whether  fish 
had  any  use  for  olfactory  organs.  But  almost  every 
angler  knows  that  at  least,  with  some  sorts  of  fish,  he 
has  much  better  luck  when  his  bait  is  scented  with  some 
strong  odoriferous  drugs,,  as  assafcetida,  musk,  or  cam- 
phor. It  is  well  known,  indeed,  both  by  other  experi- 
ments, as  well  as  by  dissection,  that  fishes  are  endowed 
with  organs  of  smell. 

What  were  the  results  of  Audubon's  experiments  on  the  smell  of  vul- 
tures 1  What  is  said  of  the  organs  of  smell  in  fishes  1 


204  SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 


ORGANS    OF    TASTE. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  tongue  is  the  principal  organ 
of  taste  ;  though  the  lips,  the  palate,  the  internal  surfa- 
ces of  the  cheeks,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  esophagus, 
all  participate  in  this  favorite  sense. 

The  organs  of  this  sense  are  much  the  most  abundant 
on  the  tongue,  where  they  may  be  seen,  especially 
towards  the  end,  in  the  form  of  papilla,  or  minute  ele- 
vated protuberances. 

If  these  be  touched  with  a  fluid,  that  is  strong  to  the 
taste,  such  as  vinegar,  they  will  be  seen  to  rise  by  the 
stimulus,  an  effect  which  probably  accompanies  the  sen- 
sation of  taste  at  all  times. 

The  lingual  nerve,  or  nerve  of  the  tongue,  is  that 
which  is  chiefly  concerned  in  conveying  the  sense  of 
taste  to  the  brain.  But  Magendie  says,  that  after  the 
most  careful  examination  of  this  part  by  dissection, 
assisted  by  the  most  delicate  instruments,  he  was  unable 
to  trace  these  nerves  to  the  papillae.  Still  the  sense  of 
taste  must  be  attributed  to  the  filaments  of  this  nerve. 

The  primary  use  of  taste  is  to  guide  animals  in  the 
selection  of  their  food,  and  warn  them  against  the  intro- 
duction of  noxious  articles  into  the  stomach. 

In  all  the  inferior  animals,  this  sense,  together  with 
that  of  smell,  is  generally  a  sufficient  guard  against  the 
use  of  noxious  food.  In  these,  therefore,  the  original 
design  of  taste  is  still  answered.  But  in  man,  this  sense 
has  been  so  abused  and  perverted,  by  the  introduction  of 
stimulants,  and  the  endless  admixture  of  different  arti- 
cles of  food,  that  the  simple  action  of  this  part,  seems  to 
have  been  superseded  almost  entirely  by  acquired  taste. 
Hence  man,  in  his  present  state  of  civilization,  and  luxu- 
riousness,  has  no  sense  by  which  he  can  determine  with 
any  degree  of  certainty,  what  is  wholesome  and  what  is 
poisonous.  In  the  savage  state,  the  sense  of  taste  and 

What  part  of  insects  constitutes  the  organ  of  smell  7  Where  is  the 
organ  of  taste  situated  1  What  is  the  primary  use  of  taste  ?  In  what 
animals  is  this  design  still  answered  7  What  is  said  of  the  power  of 
man  to  detect  poisonous  articles  by  the  taste  ? 


ORGANS   OP   TASTE.  205 

smell  are  much  less  vitiated,  than  in  civilized  man ;  and 
hence  the  men  of  the  forest,  it  is  said,  are  guided,  in  a 
considerable  degree  by  these  senses,  in  the  choice  of 
their  food,  especially  in  times  of  scarcity,  when  they  are 
obliged  to  roam  in  search  of  new  articles. 

ORGANS    OF    TOUCH. 

By  the  sense  of  touch  we  are  enabled  to  know  the 
external  properties  of  bodies. 

Physiologists  make  a  distinction  between  tact  and 
touch.  Tact,  with  some  few  exceptions,  is  generally  dif- 
fused through  all  our  organs,  and  particularly  over  the 
skin.  It  exists  in  all  animals,  while  touch  exists  chiefly 
in  the  fingers  of  man,  in  the  antennce  of  insects,  and  in 
the  noses  of  certain  quadrupeds. 

In  the  exercise  of  these  functions,  tact  is  considered 
passive,  as  when  any  part  of  the  system  comes  into  con- 
tact with  another  body,  a  sensation  of  its  presence  is 
given,  without  the  exercise  of  volition.  On  the  coittrary 
touch  is  active,  and  is  exercised  voluntarily  for  the  pur- 
pose of  conveying  to  the  mind  a  knowledge  of  the 
qualities,  or  properties  of  the  surfaces  of  bodies ;  as 
when  we  feel  a  piece  of  cloth  to  ascertain  its  quality, 
or  a  polished  surface  to  prove  its  smoothness. 

Anatomy  of  the  Skin. — The  sensation  of  tact,  and 
touch  is  conveyed  to  the  brain  by  means  of  nerves  situ- 
ated in  the  skin. 

The  skin  consists  of  three  parts  called  the  cuticle,  or 
epidermis  ;'the  rete  mucosum  ;  and  the  corium,  or  cutis 
vera,  or  true  skin. 

The  cuticle  is  the  external  layer.  In  its  structure  it  is 
membranous  and  dry,  having  neither  nerves,  veins,  nor 
arteries.  It  has  therefore  no  sensation,  its  office  being 
merely  to  protect  the  true  skin  from  external  injury. 
The  cuticle  is  that  thin  membrane  which  is  raised  by  a 

What  is  the  difference  between  touch  and  tact  1  In  the  exercise  of  these 
functions  which  is  active  and  which  passive  7  How  are  these  sensations 
conveyed  to  the  brain  7  What  parts  compose  the  skin,  and  what  their 
names  1  What  is  the  cuticle  and  where  is  it  situated  ?  What  is  the  use 
of  the  cuticle  ? 

18 


206  SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

blister,  and  which  when  removed,  leaves  the  true  skin 
exposed.  The  pain  consequent  upon  such  exposure,  is 
the  best  test  of  the  importance  of  the  office  which  this 
membrane  performs.  It  is  full  of  minute  pores,  through 
which  the  perspiration  escapes. 

The  next  layer  of  the  skin  is  the  rete  mucosum,  or 
mucous  web.  It  is  in  this  that  the  coloring  matter  of  the 
different  races  of  men  exists.  In  the  African,  it  is  black, 
in  the  American  and  European,  white,  and  in  American 
Indians,  copper  colored. 

The  corium,  or  true  skin,  lies  next.  This  consists  of  a 
tissue  of  dense  fibres  intersecting  each  other  in  all  direc- 
tions, the  nerves  and  blood  vessels,  passing  between 
them.  It  is  a  thick  and  firm  covering  for  the  protection 
of  the  flesh,  and  the  larger  nerves,  and  blood  vessels, 
some  of  which  are  immediately  under  it. 

The  composition  of  the  true  skin  is  chiefly  gelatine, 
and  hence  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glue,  and  the 
substance  called  sizing,  used  by  paper-makers.  When 
this  gelatine  is  hardened  by  tanning,  the  skin  becomes 
leather,  and  is  used  for  shoes  and  boots.  In  addition  to 
these,  there  is  the  corpus  papillarce,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  part  of  the  true  skin,  being  formed  by  the 
extremities  of  the  nerves  and  vessels,  which  have  pass- 
ed through  that  part.  These  are  little  protuberances, 
and  are  seen  distinctly  in  the  true  skin,  after  the  cuticle 
has  been  removed  by  a  blister.  When  the  parts  are 
relaxed,  they  are  not  so  apparent,  but  become  erect, 
rising  a  little  above  the  surface,  when  the  skin  is  stimu- 
lated, or  touched. 

It  appears  to  be  in  these  papillae  that  the  sense  of 
touch  resides,  these  being  furnished  with  nerves  appro- 
priated to  this  particular  sensation.  In  most  cases  the 
ends  of  the  fingers,  but  sometimes  the  lips,  are  employed 
to  convey  information  by  the  touch. 

In  what  part  of  the  skin  do  the  colors  of  the  different  races  lie  ?  What 
is  the  corium,  and  where  is  it  situated  1  Where  is  the  sense  of  touch  sit- 
uatedl 


PART     VI. 


MENTAL    AND   PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


THE    BRAIN. 

Preparatory  to  treating  of  the  Sensorial  Functions,  we 
gave  a  summary  account  of  the  nervous  system,  as  it 
exists  in  various  animals,  with  a  figure  of  the  ganglion  ; 
reserving  more  particular  descriptions  of  the  brain  and 
its  functions  as  they  are  found,  in  the  human  species,  for 
the  purpose  of  connecting  them  with  observations  on 
Physical  and  Mental  Exercise. 

Size  of  the  Brain. — Aristotle  and  Pliny  both  assert 
that  the  brain  of  man  is,  not  only  comparatively,  but 
absolutely  larger  than  that  of  any  other  animal.  At  the 
present  time,  only  two  exceptions  to  this  assertion  are 
known.  The  brain  of  the  Whale,  and  that  of  the  Ele- 
phant are  larger  in  bulk  than  that  of  the  human  species. 
Comparatively,  however,  the  human  brain  is  much  lar- 
ger than  that  of  any  other  known  animal.  By  analogy, 
therefore,  we  might  infer  that  in  man,  the  largest  de- 
velopment of  this  organ,  would,  other  circumstances 
being  equal,  insure  the  most  capacious  intellect,  and 
perhaps  this  may  be  considered  as  generally  true.  Says 
Magendie,  "  the  volume  of  the  brain,  is  generally  in 

What  is  said  of  the  absolute  size  of  the  human  brain  1    What  is  said 
of  the  comparative  size  of  this  organ  in  man  ? 


208 


MENTAL    AND   PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


direct  proportion  to  the  capacity  of  the  mind."  "  We 
ought  not  to  suppose,  however,  that  every  man  having 
a  large  head  is  necessarily  a  person  of  superior  intelli- 
gence, for  there  are  many  causes  of  an  augmentation  of 
the  volume  of  the  head  beside  the  size  of  the  brain  ;  but 
it  is  rarely  found  that  a  man  distinguished  by  his  mental 
faculties  has  not  a  large  head.  The  only  way  of  esti- 
mating the  volume  of  the  brain  in  a  living  person,  is  to 
measure  the  dimensions  of  the  skull.  Every  other 
means,  even  that  proposed  by  Camper  is  uncertain." 

Dimensions  of  the  Brain — The  whole  substance  of 
the  brain,  and  spinal  marrow,  are  continuous,  forming 
but  a  single  piece.  But  the  different  parts  of  this  organ 
are  supposed  to  perform  different  functions,  and  they 
present  also  a  variety  of  appearances,  and  hence  have 
received  different  names. 

That  portion  of  the  brain  which  fills  the  upper  part  of 
the  skull  and  extends  from  the  orbit  of  the  eye,  to  the 
most  prominent  parts  of  the  hind  head  is  called  the  cere- 
brum, or  encephalon. 

Fig.  120. 


Is  there  any  proportion  between  the  size  of  the  brain  and  the  intellect  1 


THE   BRAIN.  209 

This  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  longitudinally, 
called  the  right  and  left  hemispheres  of  the  brain  h  h  h, 
Fig.  120,  which  represents  the  right  hemisphere.  The 
medulla  oblongata,  m,  or  oblong  marrow,  is  that  portion 
of  the  spinal  chord  which  is  contained  within  the  skull. 
Its  continuation  downwards,  s,  is  called  the  medulla  spi- 
nalis,  or  spinal  marrow.  The  part  c,  is  the  cerebellum, 
or  little  brain,  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  cere- 
brum, above  described.  The  tree-like  figure,  shown  by 
dividing  it  through  the  centre  is  called  the  abor  vita,  or 
tree  of  life.  The  corpus  callosum,  or  hard  body,  q,  is  a 
white  medullary  part,  which  joins  the  two  hemispheres 
together  ;  v,  marks  one  of  the  lateral  ventricles  of  the 
brain.  The  pineal  gland  p,  was  supposed  by  Des  Car- 
tes to  be  the  seat  of  the  soul. 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  work  to  enter  into  a 
minute  description  of  the  different  parts  of  the  brain ; 
our  object  being  to  give  a  general,  rather  than  a  partic- 
ular account  of  its  structure  and  functions. 

All  the  nerves  are  considered  as  originating  either 
directly  or  indirectly  from  the  medullary  substance,  that 
is,  from  the  medulla  oblongata,  or  the  spinal  chord. 
Those  which  pass  through  the  bones  of  the  skull,  are 
however,  called  cerebral  nerves,  while  those  which  arise 
from  the  spinal  marrow  are  called  spinal  nerves.  Among 
the  first  are  the  optic  and  olfactory  nerves. 

The  brain  receives  a  larger  quantity  of  blood  than 
any  other  organ  of  the  same  size.  The  arteries  for  this 
purpose,  are  four  in  number,  and  are  supposed  to  convey 
to  the  brain  an  eighth  part  of  all  the  blood  which  flows 
from  the  heart. 


PHRENOLOGY. 

Physiologists  have  been  at  great  pains  to  ascertain 
what  parts  of  the  brain  are  the  particular  instruments  of 

What  part  of  the  brain  is  the  cerebrum  1  What  are  the  hemispheres 
"of  the  brain  1  What  is  the  medulla  oblongata  1  What  does  the  continu- 
tion  of  this  part  form  1  What  is  the  situation  of  the  cerebellum  1  From 
what  parts  do  the  nerves  arise  7  What  is  said  of  the  quantity  of  blood 
sent  to  the  brain  ? 

18* 


210       MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

the  different  functions  of  life,  as  those  of  sensation,  of 
intellect,  of  voluntary  motion,  and  of  the  passions.  But 
aside  from  the  more  recent  investigations  of  Phre- 
nologists, and  the  light  which  that  science  has  been  sup- 
posed to  have  thrown  upon  this  most  difficult  of  subjects, 
it  must  be  confessed  that  these  attempts  have  not  been 
crowned  with  much  success.  All  that  experiments  and 
observations  appear  heretofore  to  have  determined  on 
this  point,  is,  that  the  hemispheres  of  the  brain  are  the 
instruments  of  the  intellectual  faculties ;  the  central 
parts  of  the  brain,  and  the  medulla  oblongata,  are  those 
principally  concerned  in  sensation,  and  that  the  cere- 
bellum is  the  chief  sensorial  agent  in  voluntary  motion. 

Phrenology  wants  more  facts. — With  respect  to  the 
foundation  of  Phrenology,  as  being  based  upon  the  ana- 
tomical structure,  and  natural  divisions  of  the  brain,  the 
author  of  this  work  has  nothing  to  offer,  having  had  no 
recent  opportunities  of  examining  that  organ  with  such 
views.  Nor  will  he  venture  to  affirm  that  this  science 
will  not  ultimately  be,  in  one  way,  or  another,  of  some 
use  to  mankind.  But  he  must  be  allowed  to  say,  that 
so  far  as  the  principles  of  this  science  have  yet  been 
developed,  its  practical  usefulness  in  directing  parents 
to  educate,  or  employ  their  children  according  to  their 
different  capacities,  or  inclinations  ;  or  of  enabling  them 
to  counteract  their  evil  propensities  ;  or  even  of  point- 
ing out  with  any  degree  of  certainty  the  peculiar  intel- 
lectual powers  of  an  adult,  by  an  examination  of  the 
cranium,  Phrenology  has  not,  at  least,  in  this  country 
answered  the  former  promises  and  expectations  of  its 
advocates.  It  is  true,  that  George  Combe,  Esq.,  of 
Edinburgh,  and  others,  have  collected  together  many 
facts  on  this  subject,  and  from  which  it  would  appear 
that  this  science  might,  with  certain  modifications  be 
ultimately  placed  on  a  permanent  foundation.  But  a 
multitude  of  facts,  and  severe  critical  observations,  are 
still  wanting,  to  induce  the  great  mass  of  well-educated 

What  part  of  the  brain  is  the  instrument  of  the  intellectual  faculties  1 
What  part  of  the  brain  is  chiefly  concerned  in  sensation  7  What  part  is 
the  agent  of  voluntary  motion? 


PHRENOLOGY.  211 

people  to  form  their  opinions  on  a  matter  which  is  held 
out  to  them  to  be  of  such  high  importance  ;  and  more 
still,  to  induce  them  to  trust  to  its  guidance,  the  educa- 
tion of  their  children,  or  any  of  the  important  concerns 
of  life. 

Mr.  Rogefs  opinion. — But  without  making  further 
observations  of  our  own,  we  will  merely  cite  the  opinions 
of  two  or  three  individuals,  which  have  been  formed 
with  a  knowledge  of  the  facts,  and  whose  decisions  are 
not  of  less  weight  than  those  of  any  cotemporary  wri- 
ters. 

"  Although,"  says  Mr.  Roget,  "  the  brain  is  construct- 
ed with  evident  design,  and  composed  of  a  number  of 
curiously  wrought  parts,  we  are  utterly  unable  to  pene- 
trate the  intention  with  which  they  are  formed,  or  to 
perceive  the  slightest  correspondence  which  their  config- 
uration can  have  with  the  functions  they  respectively 
perform.  The  map  of  regions  which  modern  Physiolo- 
gists have  traced  on  the  surface  of  the  head,  and  which 
they  suppose  to  have  relation  to  different  faculties,  and 
propensities,  does  not  agree  either  with  the  natural  divis- 
ions of  the  brain,  nor  with  the  metaphysical  classifica- 
tion of  mental  phenomena."* 

Dr.  Bostock's  sentiments. — "  The  view,"  says  Dr.  Bos- 
tock,  "  which  I  have  taken  of  the  connection  that  sub- 
sists between  the  physical  structure  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, and  the  mental  faculties,  naturally  brings  me  to  a 
subject,  which  has  of  late  attracted  a  considerable 
degree  of  attention  among  anatomists  and  physiologists, 
viz.  the  dependence  of  the  character  and  disposition 
upon  the  peculiar  shape  and  organization  of  the  brain. 
Certain  facts,  which  seemed  to  favor  this  opinion,  had 
long  been  noticed  ;  persons  of  observation  were  in  the 
habit  of  associating  the  idea  of  superior  intellect  with  a 
capacious  and  prominent  forehead,  while  the  contrary 
form  was  equally  conceived  to  indicate  a  deficiency  of 


*  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology,  Bridgwater  Treatise.  Vol.  ii. 
p.  565.  London,  1835. 

It  is  proper  to  remark,  that  Dr.  Roget,  is  the  author  of  the  Article 
11  Cramoscopy  "  in  the  Encyclopedia  Brittanica,  and  therefore  has  not 
given  this  opinion,  without  knowledge. 


212  MENTAL   AND    PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

mental  powers.  *  *  *  When  the  sculptors  of 
antiquity  formed  the  statues  of  their  gods,  or  heroes, 
to  which  they  were  desirous  of  imparting  the  character 
of  high  intelligence,  they  endeavored  to  accomplish  this 
by  giving  a  peculiar  form  to  the  head."  *  * 

"  The  arguments  which  have  been  urged  in  favor  of 
the  science  of  Cranioscopy,"*  continues  Dr.  Bostock, 
"  are  partly  anatomical  and  partly  physological.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  said  that  the  brain  exhibits  a  very  elabo- 
rate structure,  and  a  very  complicated  organization,  and 
it  is  therefore  reasonable  to  conclude,  that  its  different 
parts  must  be  subservient  to  the  exercise  of  different 
functions." 

"  Secondly,  both  metaphysicians  and  physiologists  have 
been  in  the  habit  of  referring  all  the  impressions  which 
we  receive  through  the  intervention  of  the  nerves  to 
some  central  part  of  the  brain,  but  the  great  diversity  of 
opinion  which  exists  respecting  the  part  which  ought  to 
be  regarded  as  this  common  centre,  affords  us  at  least  a 
strong  presumption  of  its  non-existence,  while  on  the 
contrary,  if  we  suppose  that  there  actually  is  such  a  cen- 
tral spot,  we  are  at  a  loss  to  assign  any  use  to  the 
remainder  of  the  brain." 

"  Thirdly,  we  are  in  possession  of  a  number  of  obser- 
vations upon  the  partial  loss  of  the  mental  faculties,  in 
consequence  of  disease  or  injury  of  the  brain,  and 
although  we  are  not  able  to  trace  out  the  connection 
between  the  situation  of  the  injury  received,  and  the 
defect  of  the  mental  powers,  yet  it  favors  the  opinion 
that  these  faculties  are  distributed  over  the  different 
parts  of  which,  the  brain  is  constituted. 

"  Fourthly,  the  analogy  of  the  nerves  that  are  con- 
nected with  the  external  organs  of  sense  is  adduced  by 
the  cranioscopists  in  favor  of  their  doctrine.  Each  of 
these  nerves,  in  conveying  their  respective  impressions, 
must  exercise  a  different  office,  and  in  the  same  way,  the 
different  convolutions  of  the  brain  are  supposed  to  be 
the  organs  of  the  respective  mental  functions. 

*  Dr.  Bostock  remarks,  that  this  being  the  term  originally  employed, 
and  being  much  more  appropriate,  than  Phrenology,  he  continues  to  use  it. 


PHRENOLOGY.  213 

"  Fifthly,  it  is  argued  that  the  state  of  the  brain  in 
regard  to  its  perfection,  and  full  development,  corres- 
ponds to  the  state  of  the  mental  faculties  at  the  different 
periods  of  life,  and  also  to  their  degree  of  perfection 
among  the  inferior  animals,  so  as  to  indicate  a  necessa- 
ry connection  between  these  circumstances.  ;  „ 

"  Sixthly,  the  brains  of  different  individuals  actually 
differ  in  the  proportionate  form  and  size  of  their  parts, 
and  it  is  therefore  reasonable  to  presume,  that  this  may 
be  the  cause  of  the  difference  which  is  admitted  to 
exist  in  the  faculties  of  different  individuals. 

"  Seventhly,  the  exercise  of  the  mental  powers,  like 
those  of  the  physical  functions  is  attended  with  fatigue ; 
but  it  is  found  by  experience,  that  the  fatigue  only  ex- 
tends to  that  particular  power  which  has  been  exercised : 
it  may,  therefore,  be  presumed  that  its  action  is  confined 
to  a  certain  portion  of  the  brain  only. 

"  Eigthly,  proceeding  upon  the  principle,  that  the  dis- 
positions, and  mental  faculties  are,  to  a  certain  extent, 
innate,  and  observing  that  they  exist  in  different  individ- 
uals in  different  proportions,  it  follows  that  they  must  be 
attached  to  different  organs. 

"  The  above,"  says  Dr.  Bostock,  "  appears  to  me  to 
exhibit  a  fair  statement  of  the  nature  of  the  arguments 
which  have  been  employed,  to  prove  the  antecedent 
probability  of  the  doctrine  of  cranioscopy.  But  its  ad- 
vocates are  aware  that  its  merits  must  principally  rest 
upon  the  degree  in  which  it  is  found  to  correspond  with 
well  ascertained  facts,  and  correct  observation,  and 
with  the  power  which  it  actually  affords  us  of  acquiring 
a  knowledge  of  the  character  and  disposition  of  indi- 
viduals, by  an  examination  of  the  skull.  It  is,  therefore, 
by  an  appeal  to  experience,  that  the  supporters  of  cran- 
ioscopy, and  Dr.  Spurzheim  in  particular,  attempt  to 
establish  their  opinion,  and  they  have  accordingly  brought 
forward  a  number  of  facts  of  this  description,  which 
are  supposed  to  form  a  sufficiently  firm  basis  for  their 
system.  They  consist  of  the  results  which  were  obtained 
by  examining  the  heads  of  various  individuals  of  all  ages, 
ranks,  and  conditions,  minutely  noticing  the  deviations 
from  average  form,  especially  with  regard  to  the  size 
and  situation  of  the  eminences,  or  protuberances  which 


214       MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

they  exhibited.  The  examination  has  also  been  exten- 
ded to  the  inferior  animals,  and  the  same  principles  have 
been  applied  to  their  skulls,  both  as  to  what  respects 
their  general  form,  and  the  proportionate  size  of  their 
individual  parts,  whether  indicating  a  generic,  or  an 
individual  difference. 

"  In  estimating  the  value  of  these  arguments,  I  shall 
arrange  them  in  two  divisions,  as  they  relate  to  general 
considerations  of  probability,  or  as  they  depend  more 
upon  particular  facts. 

"  And  with  respect  to  the  first  point,  I  think  it  will  be 
admitted  that  there  is  none  of  them  which  possesses  more 
than  an  indirect  application  to  the  question  in  discussion. 
Admitting  that  the  perfect  organization  of  the  brain  is 
a  necessary  intermedium  for  the  exercise  of  the  mental 
powers,  we  may  conclude,  that  every  part  of  this  organ 
must  have  a  necessary  connection  with  the  exercise  of 
these  powers,  as  every  part  of  the  eye  and  the  ear  has 
a  reference  to  the  production  of  vision  and  of  sound. 
Inconsequence  of  our  knowledge  of  the  physical  laws  of 
light,  and  the  undulations  of  the  air,  we  are  enabled  to 
trace  out  the  mode  in  which  the  several  parts  of  the  eye, 
and  of  the  ear  co-operate  to  produce  the  ultimate  effect. 
Had  we  the  same  knowledge  of  the  mode  in  which  the 
mind  operates  upon  the  brain,  we  should  probably  have  it 
in  our  power  to  detect  the  same  kind  of  co-operation  of 
all  its  parts  and  structures  to  the  production  of  percep- 
tion and  thought.  But  on  this  point  we  are  in  total 
ignorance,  and  therefore,  although  we  may  go  so  far  as 
to  assert,  that  a  perfect  brain,  in  a  certain  sense,  is  essen- 
tial to  a  perfect  mind,  we  are  unable  to  say  in  what  way 
it  is  so. 

"  The  only  anatomical  argument  which  is  of  so  tangi- 
ble a  nature  as  to  allow  of  any  thing  approaching  to 
direct  deduction,  is  derived  from  a  consideration  of  the 
degree  in  which  an  injury  of  the  brain  produces  a  cor- 
responding injury  of  the  mental  powers.  Upon  this 
point  I  have  already  stated  my  opinion,  and  I  have  only 
to  add,  that  while  the  connection  is  not  of  that  nature 
which  indicates  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  so  I 
should  be  still  less  disposed  to  allow,  that  the  fact§ 
which  we  possess  are  of  that  distinct  and  direct  nature, 


PHRENOLOGY.  215 

which  can  enable  us  to  connect  particular  injuries  of  the 
brain  with  corresponding  injuries  of  particular  facul- 
ties. 

"  The  position  that  the  size  of  an  organ  is  an  indica- 
tion of  the  degree  of  its  power,  or  capacity,  a  position 
which  may  be  regarded  as  almost  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple on  which  the  whole  doctrine  rests,  is  in  direct  con- 
tradiction to  fact.  To  revert  to  the  case  of  the  eye  ;  it 
may  be  asserted  that  this  perfection  of  this  organ,  either 
when  considered  with  respect  to  the  different  species  of 
animals,  or  to  the  different  individuals  of  the  same  spe- 
cies, does  not  bear  the  least  relation  to  its  size,  but 
depends  entirely  upon  the  nature  of  its  organization, 
and,  except  in  those  cases  where  the  exercise  of  an 
organ  is  connected  with  mechanical  force,  as  in  muscu- 
lar contraction,  bulk  has  no  relation  to  the  perfection  of 
a  part.  *  *  *  * 

"  And  even  were  it  proved,  as  a  general  principle 
that  distinct  parts  of  the  brain  were  appropriated  to 
distinct  mental  functions,  we  may  still  be  permitted  to 
doubt  whether  the  cranioscopists  have  been  fortunate 
in  their  division  and  appropriation  of  the  functions 
which  are  supposed  to  possess  these  distinct  localities. 
If  we  consider  the  subject  theoretically,  we  might  pre- 
sume, that  there  would  be  a  separate  organ  correspond- 
ing to  each  of  the  external  senses,  as  the  impressions 
are  themselves  distinct  in  their  nature,  and  might  be  sup- 
posed to  require  some  different  modification  of  the  nervous 
matter  for  their  perception.  And  again,  with  respect 
to  the  intellectual  powers,  there  are  some  which  appear 
so  distinct  from  the  others,  that  we  might  apply  to  them 
the  same  mode  of  reasoning,  and  suppose  it  probable  that 
they  might  possess  their  appropriate  organs.  The  fac- 
ulty of  memory  might  be  supposed  to  require  a  different 
modification  of  the  nervous  power  from  that  of  the 
imagination ;  and  this  again  from  that  of  abstraction 
or  volition.  But  we  do  not  observe  any  classification  or 
division  of  this  kind  in  the  faculties  that  are  enumerated 
by  Dr.  Spurzheim,  or  his  disciples.  Some  of  them  are 
complex  feelings,  resulting  from  the  union  of  primary 
perceptions  with  ideas ;  others  appear  to  be  a  com- 
bination of  ideas  only ;  some  may  be  regarded  as  the 
obvious  result  of  association,  and  others  again  as  the 


216  MENTAL    AND    PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

effect  of  association  operating  through  the  intervention 
of  education,  or  of  the  accidental  circumstances  in 
which  the  individual  has  been  placed. 

"  And  with  respect  to  what  may  be  regarded  as  the 
practical  application  of  the  art,  or  science  of  craniosco- 
py ;  it  may  be  objected,  that  the  convolutions  of  the 
cerebrum  are  not  what  one  should  expect  to  be  the  seat 
of  the  ultimate  operations  of  the  organ.  They  are  not 
the  part  in  which  we  behold  that  elaborate  and  compli- 
cated structure,  the  existence  of  which  has  been  sup- 
posed to  form  so  powerful  an  argument  in  favor  of  the 
doctrine,  while  this  view  of  the  subject  still  leaves  unex- 
plained the  uses  of  the  more  minutely  organized  parts, 
that  are  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  brain." 

Dr.  Bostock  further  remarks,  that  the  question  wheth- 
er this  science  has  any  foundation  or  not,  must  be  deci- 
ded by  an  appeal  to  facts.  "  These  facts  are  of  two 
kinds,  almost  exactly  coinciding  in  their  object.  We 
must  obtain  skulls  that  are  marked  by  some  peculiarity 
of  form  and  shape,  and  must  then  endeavor  to  learn 
what  was  the  natural  character  of  the  subject ;  or  we 
must  take  the  cases  of  those  who  have  shown  some  de- 
cided peculiarity  of  disposition  and  character,  and  exam- 
ine the  figure  of  their  skulls.  A  sufficient  number  of 
these  observations,  carefully  made  and  impartially  re- 
corded, cannot  fail  to  decide  the  question,  whether  there 
be  any  ground  for  the  doctrine  of  the  appropriation  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  brain  to  distinct  faculties;  and 
more  particularly,  whether  we  have  it  in  our  power  to 
ascertain  their  seat  by  an  external  examination  of  the 
cranium.  On  this  point,  I  must  give  it  as  the  conviction 
of  my  mind,  that  the  facts  hitherto  adduced,  are  altogeth- 
er inadequate  to  the  end  proposed  ;  that  they  are  fre- 
quently of  doubtful  authority,  and  of  incorrect  applica- 
tion ;  and  that  nothing  but  the  love  of  novelty,  and  the 
eagerness  with  which  the  mind  embraces  whatsoever 
promises  to  open  a  new  avenue  to  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge,  could  have  led  men  of  talents  and  informa- 
tion to  place  any  confidence  in  them."* 


*  An  Elementary  System  of  Physiology,  by  John  Bostock,  M.   D., 
F.  R.  S.,L.  S.  G.  S.  H.  S.  M.  R.  L,  London,  Vol.  III.,  p.  264—5-6. 


PHRENOLOGY.  217 

We  have  added  this  long  extract  from  one  of  the  high- 
est physiological  authorities  of  the  age,  to  that  of  Dr. 
Roget,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  those  into  whose 
hands  this  volume  may  happen  to  fall,  that  there  is  still  a 
doubt  among  the  most  competent  judges  in  Europe,  not 
only  whether  Phrenology  is  likely  to  be  of  any  practical 
utility  to  man,  but  even  whether  it  has  any  founda- 
tion in  nature.  At  the  same  time,  as  it  is  acknowledged 
by  the  advocates  of  its  doctrines  themselves,  that  it  must 
stand  or  fall  on  the  facts  which  can  be  adduced  for,  or 
against  it,  we  can  see  no  objection  to  their  accumulation, 
provided  in  the  mean  time,  the  public  curiosity  can  be  so 
suspended  as  to  prevent  the  waste  of  too  much  time  in 
studying  it,  or  the  adoption  of  a  system,  which  does  not 
at  present  appear  to  be  of  any  great  practical  use  to  the 
rising  generation,  whatever  it  may  ultimately  become. 

Double  Organs  of  the  Mammalia. — In  man,  as  well  as 
in  all  the  other  vertebrated  animals,  every  organ  sub- 
servient to  the  sensorial  functions,  and  most  of  those 
concerned  in  voluntary  action,  are  double  ;  that  is,  there 
is  a  symmetrical  organ  on  each  side,  whose  powers  and 
functions  are  exactly  alike.  Thus  we  have  two  eyes, 
two  ears,  two  arms,  two  legs,  &c.  The  same  law 
holds  with  respect  to  the  brain,  this  part,  as  we  have 
shown,  being  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  called  the 
right  and  left  hemispheres  ;  so  that  in  fact,  we  have  two 
brains,  and  a  double  set  of  nerves,  as  well  as  double  eyes 
and  ears. 

In  the  sensorial  functions  these  two  parts  constitute, 
in  action,  only  a  single  organ  of  sensation ;  thus  the  ac- 
tion of  the  two  eyes  convey  to  the  mind  only  a  single  im- 
pression, and  of  the  two  ears  only  a  single  sound.  This 
effect  is  produced  by  a  free  communication  which  exists 
between  the  two  divisions  of  the  brain,  by  means  of  me- 
dullary substances,  called  tha  commissures  of  the  brain, 
and  which  pass  directly  from  one  hemisphere  to  the  oth- 
er. The  principal  commissure  is  the  corpus  callosum, 
shown  at  g,  Fig.  120.  In  the  functions  of  most  of  the 

What  is  said  of  the  double  organs  of  the  sensorial,  and  muscular  pow- 
ers ?  In  sensorial  action  is  the  effect  double  or  single  1 

19 


218       MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

voluntary  powers,  no  necessary  use  appears  to  be  made 
of  this  communication  ;  since  \ve  can  employ  the  mus- 
cles of  one  side,  without  the  necessary  action  of  those  of 
the  other,  or  we  can  use  them  both  at  the  same  time. 
Thus  we  can  throw  up  one  hand,  or  both,  at  the  same  in- 
stant. 

Insensibility  of  the  Brain. — The  brain,  as  we  have 
seen,  is  the  source  of  every  sensation  ;  the  common  sen- 
sorium  through  which  we  derive  every  pleasure,  and  feel 
every  pain.  And  yet  this  wonderful  organ,  so  sensible 
to  mechanical  impressions  that  a  little  blow,  even  through 
the  bones  of  the  skull,  will  often  produce  instant  death,  is 
itself  entirely  insensible  !  "That  part  of  the  brain,"  says 
Sir  Charles  Bell,  "  which  if  disturbed  or  diseased,  takes 
away  consciousness,  is  as  insensible  as  the  leather  of  our 
shoe  !"  It  may  be  touched,  or  a  portion  of  it  torn  off 
without  sensation,  and  yet,  to  its  proper  office,  it  is  exquis- 
itely sensible. 


OF    THE    MUSCLES. 

\ 

We  have  designedly  omitted  to  treat  of  the  muscles, 
until  we  came  to  that  part  of  our  work,  where  they  could 
with  propriety  be  described  in  connection  with  an  ac- 
count of  their  functions,  the  exercise  of  which  is  one  of 
the  principal  means  by  which  we  are  to  continue  in  the 
enjoyment  of  health,  both  corporeal  and  mental. 

The  muscles  are  the  red  fibrous  parts  of  animals, 
which  are  situated  immediately  under  the  skin.  They 
constitute  all  those  parts  commonly  called  flesh.  Their 
number  in  the  human  body  is  about  400.  They  consist 
of  distinct  portions,  or  separate  bundles  of  fibres,  which 
are  susceptible  of  contraction  and  relaxation,  at  the  will 
of  the  animal ;  for  which  reason  they  are  called  volunta- 
ry muscles,  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from  the  heart, 
and  other  muscular  parts  over  which  the  will  has  no  con- 
trol. Every  muscle  of  course,  is  furnished  with  its  ap- 
propriate set  of  nerves. 

What  are  the  muscles  ?  What  do  they  constitute  ?  What  do  the 
muscles  consist  of  1  Why  are  they  called  voluntary  muscles  ? 


OP   THE    MUSCLES.  219 

Each  muscle  is  distinguished  into  three  parts,  called 
the  origin,  venter  or  swell,  and  the  insertion  or  termin- 
ation. 

The  origin  is  that  part  by  which  the  muscle  is  attach- 
ed at  its  upper  end ;  the  swell  is  the  thickest  or  most 
conspicuous  part,  and  that  which  makes  up  the  chief 
bulk  of  the  whole  ;  the  insertion  is  the  smaller,  or  tendi- 
nous part,  being  that  by  which  it  is  attached  at  the  end 
opposite  to  the  insertion. 

These  three  parts  are  shown  by  Fig.  121,  of  which  a 
Fig.  121.  is  the  origin,  b  the  swell, 

and  c  the  tendinous  in- 
sertion. -  The  tendons, 
in  which  most  of  the 
muscles  end,  are  strong, 
white  glistening  cords, 
known  in  the  feet  of  an- 
i  imals  under  the  name  of 
sinews.  The  tendon  in  which  the  muscles  of  the  leg 
terminate,  and  which  is  fastened  to  the  bone  of  the  heel, 
is  a  good  example  of  this  part  of  the  human  frame.  It 
is  called  the  Tendo  Achilles,  and  is  said  to  have  been  so 
named,  because  as  fable  reports,  Thetis,  the  mother  of 
Achilles,  held  him  by  this  part  when  she  dipped  him  into 
the  river  Styx,  to  make  him  invulnerable.  Hence  that 
famous  hero  was  said  to  be  proof  against  all  weapons,  ex- 
cept in  the  right  heel. 

Names  of  the  Muscles. — Every  part  of  the  human 
body  which  we  ca\[  fleshy,  is  covered  with  muscles,  some 
parts  having  several  layers,  one  over  the  other.  They 
all  have  distinct  names  by  which  they  are  discriminated 
by  anatomical  writers.  Most  of  these  names  are  deri- 
ved from  those  of  the  parts  where  they  are  situated. — 
Thus  the  muscles  of  the  breast  are  called  the  pectoral 
muscles,  from  pectus,  the  breast ;  and  those  extending 
from  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow,  are  called  the  brachial 
muscles,  from  brachium,  the  arm.  Some  are  however 
named  from  their  shapes,  as  long,  broad,  or  triangular. 

What  are  the  three  parts  into  which  a  muscle  is  distinguished  1  What 
are  tendons  7  What  are  the  names  of  the  muscles  generally  derived  from  1 


220       MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE* 

The  action  of  the  muscles  depend  upon  the  Brain.— 
We  have  said  that  the  muscles  have  the  power  of  con- 
traction, and  relaxation,  at  the  will  of  the  animal.  We 
can  by  no  means  trace  the  connection  between  the  ac- 
tion of  the  brain  in  willing,  and  the  action  of  the  muscle 
in  contracting.  We  know  that  if  all  nervous  communi- 
cation between  the  brain  and  the  muscle  be  cut  off,  there 
will  no  effect  be  produced  by  the  action  of  the  brain ; 
that  is,  we  may  will  to  raise  the  arm,  but  the  muscles  re- 
main inactive,  without  the  intervention  of  the  nerves. 
This  proves  that  the  nerves,  in  some  way,  transmit  to 
the  muscles  the  mandate  of  the  brain ;  but  how  this  is 
done,  is  a  mystery  which  has  never  been  solved,  and 
most  probably  will  always  remain  beyond  the  limits  of 
human  knowledge. 

Muscular  contraction. — When  a  muscle  contracts,  the 
swell  becomes  enlarged  or  thickened,  and  the  two  ends 
approach  each  other.  By  grasping  the  thick  part  of  the 
arm,  above  the  elbow,  and  bringing  the  hand  towards 
the  mouth,  the  bulk  of  the  part  grasped,  will  be  felt  to 
enlarge,  and  grow  hard,  as  though  it  actually  contained 
more  matter  than  before  the  contraction. 

In  this  act,  the  absolute  bulk  of  the  muscle  is  however 
supposed  not  to  change,  though  its  shape  is  considerably 
modified,  a  part  of  the  bulk  towards  the  extremities, 
being  thrown  into  the  centre  ;  hence  the  increased  hard- 
ness, and  swelling  of  this  part.  The  contraction  of  the 
muscle  appears  to  consist  in  the  shortening  of  all  the  fibres 
individually,  by  which,  the  whole  bundle  is  diminished 
in  length.  On  the  contrary,  relaxation  appears  to  be 
simply  the  want  of  contraction,  or  a  passive  state  in 
which  the  muscle  ceases  to  act. 

During  sleep  all  the  muscles  are  in  a  relaxed  and  pas- 
sive state,  but  when  awake  we  can  take  no  position, 
except  the  recumbent  one,  in  which,  more  or  less  of  the 
organs  are  not  in  an  active  state.  In  the  standing  pos- 

Can  we  trace  any  connection  between  the  action  of  the  brain  in  swel- 
ling, and  the  action  of  the  muscle  in  contracting  ?  When  a  muscle  con- 
tracts, how  is  its  shape  altered  7  In  what  does  the  contraction  of  a 
muscle  consist  1  In  what  does  relaxation  consist  ? 


OF   THE    MUSCLES.  221 

ture,  the  muscles  of  the  lower  limbs  and  back  are  per- 
petually active,  in  order  to  keep  the  upright  position  ;  for 
the  instant  they  are  relaxed,  as  from  faintness,  or  a  fit, 
we  fall  to  the  ground. 

Use  of  the  Muscles. — Some  of  the  uses  of  the  mus- 
cles are  obvious,  from  what  has  just  been  said.  They 
are  also  the  grand  organs  of  motion,  by  which  the  sys- 
tem is  moved  from  one  place  to  another,  constituting  the 
instruments  of  locomotion.  It  is  by  the  muscles,  indeed 
that  all  the  motions  of  the  body,  whether  general,  or 
local  are  performed  :  not  a  finger  moves  ever  so  slightly 
without  the  contraction  of  some  fibres ;  nor  is  a  word 
spoken,  or  any  sound  of  the  voice  heard  without  a  simi- 
lar motion  of  the  muscles.  Even  the  act  of  respiration 
is  carried  on  by  these  moving  powers,  and  therefore 
life  cannot  be  sustained,  even  for  a  moment  without  their 
action. 

Mechanism  of  the  Muscles. — In  the  muscles  concern- 
ed in  locomotion,  and  in  the  other  voluntary  motions  of 
the  body,  the  rise  or  origin  of  the  muscle  is  from  one 
bone,  and  the  insertion  into  another,  the  thick  part  being 
between  these  two  points,  and  the  motion  is  performed 
by  the  intervention  of  a  joint. 

The  bones,  must  therefore,  be  considered  as  levers, 
acted  upon  by  the  muscles  ;  the  part  where  the  tendon 
is  inserted  representing  the  power  ;  the  joint  itself  the 
fulcrum,  and  the  part  that  is  moved  constituting  the 
weight. 

Levers  are  divided  into  three  kinds  according  to  the 
relative  position  of  their  three  essential  parts,  the  weight, 
the  power,  and  the  fulcrum.  In  the  first  kind,  the  ful- 
crum is  between  the  weight  and  the  power,  or  moving 
cause ;  in  the  second,  the  fulcrum  is  at  the  end  of  the 
lever,  the  weight  being  between  it  and  the  power ;  in  the 
third,  the  power  is  in  the  centre,  between  the  weight 
and  fulcrum. 

When  are  all  the  muscles  relaxed  7  What  are  the  uses  of  the  muscles  7 
Considering  the  bones  and  muscles  in  a  mechanical  relation,  what  part 
is  the  lever  1    What  part  the  power  1    What  the  fulcrum!    What  the 
weight  1    Ho  w  do  the  three  kinds  of  levers  differ  from  each  other  1 
19* 


222        MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

So  far  as  mechanical  advantage  is  concerned  the  last 
is  by  far  the  less  effective,  and  it  is  the  application  of 
this  principle  by  which  the  levers  are  moved  by  the  mus- 
cles. We  shall  see  however,  that  it  is  not  mechanical 
power  alone  which  is  created  in  the  construction  of  the 
limbs,  and  that  all  the  circumstances  considered,  this  is 
the  only  kind  of  lever  which  could  be  employed  consist- 
ently with  the  perfection  of  our  organs  of  motion. 

Muscular  action  of  the  Arm  and  Hand. — The  motion 
of  the  fore  arm  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  the 
effect  of  muscular  contraction,  and  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  produced  in  the  animal  system.  When  we  raise  a 
weight  by  bending  the  elbow  joint,  this  is  effected  by 
muscles  situated  below  the  shoulder  with  the  tendons 
inserted  into  the  upper  sides  of  the  bones  of  the  fore  arm 
just  below  the  joint. 

Let  a  b,  Fig.  122,  represent  the  bones  of  the  fore  arm, 
b  d,  the  bone  of  the  arm,  d  the  muscle,  e  the  tendon,  c 

Fig.  122. 


the  insertion  of  the  tendon  into  the  radius,  and  b  the 
elbow  joint.  It  is  plain  that  the  contraction  of  the  mus- 
cle, makes  c  approach  towards  d,  which,  as  d  is  a  fixed 
point  is  effected  by  bending  the  joint  5,  raising  up  the 
point  c,  and  thus  giving  great  velocity  of  motion  to  «, 
and  the  weight  attached  to  it. 

"  The  consideration  of  the  manner  in  which  the  mus- 
cle acts  in  this  case,  proves  that  the  mechanism  of  the 
animal  body  is  calculated  to  produce  a  great  loss  of 
absolute  power.  It  is  an  established  position  in  mechan- 
ics, that  in  the  action  of  levers,  the  power  is  to  the 
weight  as  the  distance  between  the  weight  and  the  ful- 

Whatkind  is  applicable  to  the  bones  7  Explain  Fig.  122,  and  show 
why  much  mechanical  force  is  lost  in  that  arrangement  '.'  Why  is  mus- 
cular power  thus  sacrificed  1 


OF    THE    MUSCLES.  223 

crum,  is  to  the  distance  between  the  power  and  ful- 
crum. In  the  present  case,  therefore,  the  power  of  the 
muscle  is  to  the  effect  produced  by  it,  as  a  b  is  to  c  b ; 
and  supposing  c  b  to  be  one  twentieth  of  the  length  of 
a  b9  then  one  twentieth  only  of  the  power  of  the  muscle 
is  exerted  in  raising  the  weight,  the  rest  being  expended 
in  acting  against  the  disadvantage  of  the  position."* 

We  shall,  however,  find  that  it  is  a  general  fact,  or 
law  of  the  animal  economy,  that  muscular  power  is 
always  sacrificed  to  convenience.  Had  the  object  been 
to  raise  the  weight  with  the  least  possible  power,  the 
muscle  would  have  been  placed  on  the  fore  arm,  and  the 
tendon  inserted  into  the  lower  part  of  the  arm  bone,  but 
in  this  case  the  awkwardness  of  the  limb  would  have 
much  more  than  counterbalanced  the  supposed  advan- 
tage of  saving  the  muscular  power.  This  remark  ap- 
plies with  still  greater  force  to  the  fingers,  which  are 
now  moved  by  the  contraction  of  muscles  placed  on  the 
fore  arm,  and  from  which  small  delicate  tendons  pro- 
ceed along  both  sides  of  the  hand,  to  be  inserted  into 
the  several  ranks  of  bones.  Now  had  this  order  been 
reversed,  and  the  muscles  placed  on  the  fingers,  by 
which  the  greatest  mechanical  advantage  would  have 
been  gained,  the  consequences  would  have  been,  a  hand 
so  clumsy  as  to  have  been  nearly  useless,  and  not  only 
so,  it  would  have  been,  when  compared  with  its  present 
delicate  and  beautiful  form,  an  absolute  deformity. 

Motions  of  the  Radius  and  Ulna. — Besides  the  lever- 
age motions^  of  the  fore  arm  above  described,  the  two 
bones  composing  it,  called  the  radius  and  ulna,  have 
movements  peculiar  to  themselves. 

In  Fig.  123,  a  is  the  radius,  and  b  the  ulna,  both  of 
which  are  articulated  to  the  humerus,  as  formerly  shown 
in  Fig.  65. 


Suppose  the  muscle  of  the  hand  had  been  so  placed  as  to  have  given 
that  organ  the  greatest  mechanical  power  what  would  have  been  the  result 
in  its  form  and  usefulness  ? 


*  Bostock's  Physiology,  vol.  i.  p.  186. 


224 


MENTAL   AND   PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

Fig.  123. 


The  easy  motions  of  the  hand,  which  might  be  sup- 
posed to  belong  to  the  wrist,  are  in  a  great  proportion 
owing  to  the  motions  of  the  radius  and  ulna.  The  up 
and  down  action  of  the  hand,  when  the  lower  ends  of 
these  bones  are  still,  belong  to  the  wrist,  which  is  com- 
posed of  eight  bones ;  but  the  rolling  motions  of  the 
hand,  by  which,  the  palm  is  alternately  turned  up  and 
down,  are  caused  entirely  by  the  slight  movements  of 
the  radius  on  the  ulna.  The  ulna  projects  beyond  the 
head  of  the  humerus,  forming,  when  the  arm  is  bent, 
the  point  of  the  elbow.  The  radius  has  a  small  round 

When  the  palm  is  turned  up  and  down,  what  bones  are  concerned  in 
the  motion  ? 


OF    THE    MUSCLES.  225 

head  on  which  it  turns,  without  any  motion  of  the 
humerus  ;  and  as  the  bones  of  the  wrist  are  attached  to 
the  lower  end  of  this  bone  alone,  and  not  to  the  ulna,  c, 
when  the  radius  revolves,  the  whole  hand  turns  with  it. 
This  alternate  rolling  motion  is  called  pronation  and 
supination. 

Motions  of  the  Fingers. — The  motions  of  the  fingers 
do  not  merely  result  from  the  actions  of  the  large  mus- 
cles, which  lie  on  the  fore  arm,  these  being  concerned 
more  especially  in  the  stronger  actions  of  the  hand. 

The  finer  and  more  delicate  motions  of  the  fingers  are 
performed  by  small  muscles,  situated  in  the  palm,  and 
between  the  bones  of  the  hand,  and  by  which  the  fingers 
are  expanded,  and  moved  in  all  directions  with  wonder- 
ful quickness. 

These  are  the  organs  which  give  the  hand  the  power 
of  performing  all  its  nicest  motions,  and  by  which  we 
are  enabled  to  execute  our  finest  works  ;  such  as  engra- 
ving, writing,  sewing,  and  painting ;  in  all  these  cases 
the  motions  are  directed  by  the  will,  while  the  instru- 
ment is  guided  by  the  eye. 

The  Thumb. — The  thumb  is  the  antagonist  to  the  fin- 
gers. On  the  length,  strength,  free  lateral  motion,  and 
perfect  mobility  of  the  thumb,  depend  the  power  of 
the  human  hand.  Without  the  fleshy  ball  of  the  thumb 
the  power  of  the  fingers  would  avail  nothing ;  and 
accordingly,  the  large  ball,  formed  by  the  muscles  of 
the  thumb,  is  the  distinguishing  character  of  the  human 
hand  and  especially  that  of  an  expert  workman.* 

The  Fingers  of  different  lengths. — Although  the  fin- 
gers are  of  different  lengths,  yet  when  they  are  doubled 
into  the  palm,  their  ends  become  parallel.  This  is 
owing  to  their  difference  of  length  being  chiefly  in  the 

To  what  bone  is  the  wrist  attached  1  By  what  organs  are  the  finer 
and  more  delicate  motions  of  the  hand  performed  1  What  is  said  of  the 
importance  of  the  thumb  to  the  perfection  of  the  hand  7 

*  Bell  on  the  hand. 


226  MENTAL    AND   PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

first  rank  of  bones  ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the  mid- 
dle joint  is  carried  a  proportionate  distance  from  the 
palm,  so  that  in  doubling  each  point  cornes  to  the  same 
line. 

This  difference  in  the  length  of  the  fingers,  though 
we  are  seldom  aware  of  it,  serves  to  adapt  the  hand  to 
a  great  variety  of  uses,  which  would  have  been  awk- 
wardly performed  had  they  all  been  of  the  same  length. 
In  writing,  for  instance,  did  the  little  finger  project  an 
inch  and  a  half  beyond  its  present  place,  how  awkward- 
ly should  we  perform.  In  grasping  any  small  article 
with  the  whole  hand,  a  similar  awkwardness  and  diffi- 
culty would  be  experienced. 

"  Nothing,"  says  Sir  Charles  Bell,  "  is  more  remarka- 
ble, as  forming  a  part  of  the  prospective  design  to  pre- 
pare an  instrument  fitted  for  the  various  uses  of  the 
human  hand,  than  the  manner  in  which  the  delicate  and 
moving  apparatus  of  the  palm  and  fingers  is  guarded. 
The  power  w7ith  which  the  hand  grasps,  as  when  a  sai- 
lor lays  hold  to  raise  his  body  in  the  riging,  would  be 
too  great  for  the  texture  of  mere  tendons,  nerves,  and 
vessels ;  they  would  be  crushed,  were  not  every  part 
that  bears  the  pressure,  defended  with  a  cushion  of  fat, 
as  elastic  as  that  which  we  have  described  in  the  foot 
of  the  horse  and  camel.  To  add  to  this  purely  passive 
defence,  there  is  a  muscle  which  runs  across  the  palm, 
and  more  especially  supports  the  cushion  on  its  inner 
edge.  It  is  this  muscle  which,  raising  the  edge  of  the 
palm,  adapts  it  to  lave  water,  forming  the  cup  of  Dioge- 
nes." Thus  does  anatomy  prove  that  the  human  hand 
was  designed  for  laborious  employments. 

Says  Ray,  "  Some  animals  have  horns,  some  have 
hoofs,  some  teeth,  some  talons,  some  claws,  some  spurs 
and  beaks ; — man  hath  none  of  all  these,  but  is  weak 
and  feeble,  and  sent  unarmed  into  the  world — but  a 
hand  with  reason  to  use  it,  supplies  the  place  of  all 
these." 

Thus  we  see  that  the  "  lord  of  the  creation,"  through 

What  is  said  of  the  different  lengths  of  the  fingers  in  making  the  hand 
&  perfect  instrument  1  What  prevents  the  nerves  and  tendons  from  in- 
jury when  we  grasp  firm  a  hard  body,  as  when  a  sailor  climbs  a  rop«  7 


MUSCULAR    AND    NERVOUS    SYSTEMS.  227 

the  special  benificence  of  his  Divine  Maker,  has  not  only 
been  endowed  with  the  attributes  of  reason,  judgment, 
and  discretion,  but  has  also  been  given  the  most  perfect 
of  all  mechanical  instruments,  by  which  to  carry  into 
effect  the  plans  which  his  intellect  might  suggest.  No 
created  being,  except  man,  can  with  any  instrument  fur- 
nished him  by  nature  do  so  much  as  to  draw  a  pair  of 
parallel  lines,  or  even  a  single  straight  line.  But  man 
by  the  exercise  of  his  reason,  assisted  by  his  hands, 
builds  palaces,  erects  monuments,  constructs  ships,  and 
with  the  same  instruments  manufactures  watches  ;  and 
with  still  more  delicate  touches,  imitates  nature  herself 
with  such  art,  as  almost  to  appear  the  author  of  a  new 
creation. 

All  these  powers,  so  far  from  fostering  the  pride  and 
self-sufficiency  of  man,  ought  to  be  a  reason  why  he 
should  render  to  the  Giver  of  such  endowments,  per- 
petual obedience,  thanksgiving,  and  praise. 

CONNECTION  BETWEEN  THE  NERVOUS  AND  MUSCULAR 
SYSTEMS. 

Every  person  of  common  observation,  has  noticed  the 
great  difference  which  exists  in  the  human  species,  with 
respect  to  muscular  firmness  and  strength,  and  nervous 
irritability  and  weakness  of  the  bodily  powers.  Some 
persons  are  strong  and  vigorous  in  their  muscles,  and 
are  capable  of  exerting  a  great  degree  of  strength  and  of 
continuing  it  for  a  long  period  ;  while  others,  perhaps  of 
equal  size  and  weight,  are  absolutely  incapable  of  putting 
forth  such  bodily  powers,  or  can  do  so  but  for  a  moment, 
when  they  become  utterly  exhausted. 

We  find  that  persons  of  great  muscular  firmness  are 
not  generally  subject  to  what  is  called  "  nervous  excite- 
ment." They  are  not  easily  thrown  into  trepidation ; 
they  keep  cool  and  quiet  on  all  occasions  ;  while  those 
with  the  lax  muscular  fibre  are  easily  thrown  into  excite- 
ment, any  sudden  event  being  sufficient  to  bring  on  gene- 
ral agitation,  or  even  convulsions  of  the  whole  system. 

What  is  said  of  the  goodness  of  the  Creator  in  providing  man  with  an 
instrument  to  execute  the  projects  his  reason  might  suggest. 


228       MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

TJie  muscles  furnished  with  two  sets  of  nerves. — The 
cause  of  such  differences  in  the  temperaments,  disposi- 
tions, and  muscular  powers  of  these  two  classes  of 
individuals,  as  above  described,  appear  to  be  accounted 
for  by  a  comparatively  recent  discovery  of  Sir  Charles 
Bell,  who  has  found  that  the  muscles  are  furnished  with 
two  sets  of  nerves,  one  set  being  chiefly  concerned  in 
muscular  motion,  and  the  other,  in  sensation. 

In  the  seventh  edition  of  his  anatomy,  Sir  Charles 
gives  the  following  explanation  of  the  uses  of  these  two 
kinds  of  nerves. 

"The  muscles,"  says  he,  "have  two  nerves,  which 
fact  has  not  hitherto  been  noticed,  because  they  are  com- 
monly bound  up  together.  But  whenever  the  nerves, 
as  about  the  head,  go  in  a  separate  course,  we  find  that 
there  is  a  sensitive  nerve  and  a  motor,  [or  moving] 
nerve  distributed  to  the  muscular  fibre,  and  we  have 
reason  to  conclude  that  those  branches  of  the  spinal 
nerves  which  go  to  the  muscles  consist  of  a  motor,  and 
a  sensitive  filament." 

"  It  has  been  supposed  hitherto,  that  the  office  of  a 
muscular  nerve  is  only  to  carry  out  the  mandate  of  the 
will,  and  to  excite  the  muscle  to  action ;  but  this  betrays 
a  very  inaccurate  knowledge  of  the  action  of  the  mus- 
cular system ;  for  before  the  muscular  system  can 
be  controlled  under  the  influence  of  the  will,  there  must 
be  a  consciousness,  or  knowledge  of  the  condition  of 
the  muscle." 

"  When  we  admit  that  the  various  conditions  of  the 
muscle  must  be  estimated,  or  perceived,  in  order  to  be 
under  the  due  control  of  the  will,  the  natural  question 
arises,  Is  that  nerve  which  carries  out  the  mandate  of 
the  will  capable  of  conveying,  at  the  same  moment,  an 
impression  retrograde  to  the  course  of  that  influence 
which  is  going  from  the  brain  to  the  muscle  ?  If  we 
had  no  facts  in  anatomy  to  proceed  upon,  still  reason 
would  declare  to  us,  that  the  same  filament  of  a  nerve 
could  not  convey  a  motion,  of  whatever  nature  that 
motion  may  be,  whether  vibration,  or  motion  of  spirits, 
in  opposite  directions  at  the  same  moment  of  time." 


AND  NERVOUS  SYSTEMS.  229 

"  I  find  that  to  the  full  operation  of  the  muscular 
power,  two  distinct  filaments  of  nerves  are  necessary, 
and  that  a  circle  is  established  between  the  sensorium 
and  the  muscle ;  that  one  filament  or  single  nerve  car- 
ries the  influence  of  the  will  towards  the  muscle,  which 
nerve  has  no  power  to  convey  an  impression  backwards 
to  the  brain ;  and  that  another  nerve  connects  the  mus- 
cle with  the  brain,  and,  acting  as  a  sentient  nerve,  con- 
veys the  impression  of  the  condition  of  the  muscle  to 
the  mind,  but  has  no  operation  in  a  direction  outwards 
from  the  brain  towards  the  muscle,  and  does  not  there- 
fore excite  the  muscle  however  irritated." 

Thus  we  are,  it  would  seem,  furnished  with  a  double 
apparatus  by  means  of  distinct  nervous  filaments,  one 
for  muscular  action,  and  the  other  for  sensation, — the 
one  to  carry  our  commands  from  the  brain  to  any  mus- 
cle which  we  would  have  contract ;  and  the  other  to 
bring  back  an  account  of  the  condition  of  said  muscle, 
and  inform  us  whether  the  contraction  is  too  great  or 
too  little,  or  whether  the  direction  of  the  lever  which 
the  muscle  has  been  concerned  in  moving  is  precisely 
such  as  to  answer  the  purpose  intended.  Thus  as  the 
painter  goes  on  with  his  work,  these  sentient  nerves  con- 
stantly warn  him  precisely  how  much  muscular  move- 
ment is  required  in  his  hand  to  place  his  colors  according 
to  his  taste  ;  while  the  nerves  of  contraction  move  the 
muscles  exactly  as  the  will  directs  them,  and  as  these 
different  kinds  of  information  are  conveyed  from  and  to 
the  brain,  in  an  instant,  or  "  as  quick  as  thought,"  so  we 
are  insensible  of  the  lapse  of  the  least  portion  of  time, 
between  the  mandate  from  the  brain  and  the  action  of 
the  muscles. 

The  same  process  takes  place  in  every  action  which 
we  perform.  When  we  direct  our  eyes  towards  a 
landscape,  for  instance,  and  having  examined  one  group 
of  objects,  move  them  ever  so  little  towards  the  next, 
this  is  not  done  without  the  action  of  the  sentient  nerves, 
which  inform  the  brain  exactly,  of  the  situation  of  the 
muscles  of  the  eyes  ;  which  muscles  in  their  turn, 
are  directed  how  to  move  the  orbits.  Thus  if  we 
wish  to  turn  the  eye  from  right  to  left,  or  upwards,  or 
20 


230       MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

downwards,  or  alternately  in  all  these  directions,  the 
straight  muscles,  (Fig.  104,)  are  thrown  into  alternate 
contraction,  and  relaxation,  at  the  mandate  of  the  brain. 
Meantime  the  visual  portion  of  the  eye  furnishes  us  with 
a  picture  of  the  landscape,  the  different  parts  of  which 
we  thus  examine  by  means  of  the  mechanical  portion. 
Is  it  not  plain,  that  infinite  wisdom  and  Almighty  power 
only,  could  have  devised  and  constructed  such  machin- 
ery as  this  ? 

Personal  temperament,  and  disposition,  accounted  for. 
— It  is  on  the  same  principles,  that  we  can  account  for 
the  difference  which  we  observe  in  persons,  with  respect 
to  their  temperaments,  or  dispositions,  as  already  stated. 
When  we  see  a  person  of  feeble  muscular  powers,  easi- 
ly thrown  into  agitation,  turning  pale,  or  fainting  by 
slight  causes,  and  morbidly  sensitive  to  every  nervous 
impression,  we  may  conclude  that  in  such  persons  the 
sentinet  nervous  system  predominates ;  or,  in  other 
terms,  that  the  nerves  wrhich  carry  impressions  to  the 
brain,  are  either  more  highly  developed,  or  are  in  a  more 
sensitive  state,  than  those  concerned  in  muscular  con- 
traction. In  such  persons  the  flesh  is  commonly  soft  to 
the  touch,  and  has  a  pallid  hue.  On  the  contrary, 
in  persons  where  there  is  great  muscular  power,  as  indi- 
cated, not  only  by  the  strong  outlines  of  the  muscles 
themselves,  but  also  by  the  capability  of  enduring  great, 
and  continued  bodily  exertions,  and  by  a  temperament 
void  of  excessive  sensibility,  being  able  to  bear  strong 
nervous  impressions  with  little  indication  of  nervous 
feeling  ;  w^e  may  conclude  that  in  such  persons  the  mo- 
tor nerves,  or  those  concerned  in  muscular  contraction, 
predominate  over  those  subservient  to  sensation.  In 
such  persons  the  muscles  are  commonly  rigid  to  the 
touch,  even  when  relaxed,  presenting  a  striking  contrast 
with  the  morbid  softness  of  these  parts,  in  persons  of 
excessive  nervous  mobility. 

Natural  Disposition  may  be  modified. — Although,  as 
we  have  supposed,  and  the  fact  cannot  be  doubted,  that 
there  is  a  natural  difference  in  different  persons,  with 
respect  to  the  distribution  of  the  sentient  and  muscular 


MUSCULAR    AND    NERVOUS    SYSTEMS.  231 

nerves,  still  it  is  also  true,  that  the  resulting  disposi- 
tions can  be  modified,  and  in  a  great  measure  controlled 
by  external  circumstances. 

In  persons  where  the  two  different  nervous  powers 
are  naturally  in  the  most  perfect  equilibrium,  the  one 
may  be  made  to  predominate  completely  over  the  other, 
by  the  habits,  the  occupation,  or  perhaps  the  condition  in 
life  into  wThich  the  person  happens  to  be  thrown.  Ex- 
cessive study,  a  sedentary  life,  luxurious  living,  especial- 
ly in  respect  to  drinks ;  habitual  melancholy,  or  a  gen- 
eral disposition  to  give  way  to  the  love  of  ease  and  in- 
dolence, will,  either  of  them,  in  a  longer  or  shorter  time, 
induce  a  nervous  temperament,  though  the  natural  or- 
ganization of  the  two  systems  might  have  been  as  per- 
fect as  ever  a  human  being  enjoyed. 

On  the  contrary,  persons  in  whom  the  nervous  dispo- 
sition might  have  naturally  inclined  to  laxity  of  muscular 
fibre,  and  excessive  sensorial  irritability ;  by  the  habitu- 
al practice  of  rigid  temperance,  moderate  study,  if  at  all, 
an  active  life,  requiring  the  constant  use  of  the  muscles, 
together  with  a  train  of  circumstances  in  life  calculated 
to  inspire  cheerfulness  and  hope — by  these  means,  such 
.persons  would  undoubtedly  overcome  the  natural  pre- 
dominance of  the  nervous  system,  and  induce  a  perma- 
nent state  of  muscular  firmness,  which  would  produce  a 
highly  gratifying  contrast  with  that  which  an  opposite 
mode  of  living,  or  train  of  circumstances,  would  have 
produced. 

Force  of  -Muscular  contraction. — The  force  with 
which  the  muscles  contract,  depend  on  the  size  and  con- 
dition of  the  muscle,  and  on  the  energy  of  the  brain  ; 
that  is,  the  degree  of  excitement  which  exists  during  the 
time. 

The  same  muscle,  or  same  limb,  varies  greatly  in  the 
strength  which  it  is  capable  of  exerting.  If  a  man,  nat- 
urally and  habitually  powerful  in  his  muscles,  should  suf- 
fer them  to  remain  inactive  for  a  considerable  length  of 
time,  they  will  become  absolutely  incapable  of  those 
strong  contractions,  which  had  they  been  habituated  to 
constant  action,  they  would  have  performed  with  ease. 
This  is  a  fact  that  has  fallen  within  the  experience  of  al- 


232  MENTAL    AND    PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

most  every  person,  and  is  accounted  for  in  the  popular 
way,  by  the  common  observation,  that  "  if  we  do  not 
employ  our  muscles,  they  will  lose  their  strength,"  which 
indeed  accounts  for  the  fact,  but  not  for  its  cause.  The 
cause  appears  to  be,  that  the  action  of  a  muscular  part, 
excites  the  blood  vessels  to  throw  into  it  a  greater  por- 
tion of  their  contents  than  they  otherwise  would,  so  that 
such  parts  are  better  nourished  than  those  that  remain 
inactive.  Thus  the  arm  with  which  a  blacksmith  uses 
his  hammer,  whether  the  right,  or  left,  is  by  far  more 
powerful  than  the  other.  The  muscles  of  this  limb  are 
also  larger  than  those  of  the  other,  and  are  much  more 
tense,  and  rigid  to  the  touch — a  positive  proof  of  the 
tendency  of  muscular  motion  to  produce  strength  and 
vigor. 

The  Roman  gladiators  understood  practically  the  great 
advantages  of  employing  their  muscles,  in  order  to  gain 
the  most  perfect  use  of  their  limbs,  together  with  the  ut- 
most physical  power.  Hence  they  put  forth  continued 
exertions  in  walking  and  other  exercises,  and  performed 
feats  of  strength,  which  in  the  present  age  would  appear 
incredible. 

In  more  modern  times  men  have  occasionally  appear- 
ed, who  from  the  size  and  condition  of  their  muscles, 
were  capable  of  exerting  degrees  of  strength  which  as- 
tonished every  beholder.  Sir  David  Brewster,  in  his 
"  Natural  Magic,"  has  collected  and  stated  a  number  of 
instances  of  this  kind. 

Thomas  Topham. — One  of  the  most  powerful  men  of 
modern  times,  was  the  famous  Thomas  Topham,  of 
whom  many  ludicrous  anecdotes,  illustrative  of  his  enor- 
mous muscular  strength,  are  related  ;  such  as  the  rol- 
ling up  of  pewter  dishes  with  his  hands,  as  others  do 
sheets  of  pasteboard ;  crushing  the  bowls  of  tobacco- 
pipes,  by  the  lateral  pressure  of  the  fingers  of  one  hand, 
&c.  He  took  an  iron  kitchen  poker,  a  yard  long  and 
three  inches  in  circumference,  or  an  inch  irr  diameter, 
and  holding  it  in  his  right  hand,  struck  it  upon  his  bare 
left  arm,  between  the  elbow  and  the  wrist,  until  he  bent 
the  iron  nearly  to  right  angles.  He  took  another  poker, 
and  holding  the  ends  of  it  in  his  hands,  put  the  middle 
over  his  neck,  and  then  brought  the  two  ends  together 


MUSCULAR   AND    NERVOUS    SYSTEMS.  233 

%   • 

before  him  ;  and  afterwards  undid  the  mischief,  by  ma- 
king it  straight  again  with  his  hands,  as  others  do  a  piece 
of  wire.  He  lifted  a  stone,  weighing  800  pounds,  with 
his  hands  only,  standing  in  a  frame  above  it,  and  taking 
hold  of  a  chain  to  which  it  was  fastened. 

These  feats  illustrate  the  force  of  muscular  contrac- 
tion, depending  merely  on  size  and  condition  ;  since  in 
such  cases  there  is  no  uncommon  nervous  excitement, 
or  cerebral  energy.  But  where  there  is  strong  mental 
excitement,  as  in  mania,  or  delirium,  the  other  circum- 
stances being  equal,  there  is  a  still  greater  exhibition  of 
muscular  power,  as  the  keepers  of  Retreats  for  the  in- 
sane have  often  found  to  their  sorrow,  and  sometimes  to 
their  horror  and  dismay. 

No  one,  except  by  experience,  can  have  the  least  con- 
ception of  the  efforts  of  muscularity,  which  a  delicate 
and  slightly  made  female  is  capable  of  exerting,  when  in 
a  state  of  maniacal  rage.  In  some  instances,  men  of  or- 
dinary physical  powers  are  mere  "  smoking  flax,"  be- 
fore the  muscular  velocity  of  these  most  pitiable  objects  ; 
and  even  the  strongest  men  are  sometimes  foiled  in  at- 
tempting to  prevent  them  from  committing  some  outra- 
geous act  on  which  they  are  determined. 

Such  acts  are  rather  the  effects  of  muscular  velocity, 
than  of  strength  ;  for  the  efforts  are  soon  exhausted,  after 
the  limbs  are  brought  into  a  situation  where  a  quick 
movement  is  no  longer  of  any  avail. 

Method  of  increasing  the  Muscular  powers. — There 
is  no  doubt  but  the  power  of  the  muscles  may  be  great- 
ly increased  by  a  certain  restricted  course  of  exercise 
and  diet,  to  which  the  subject  confines  himself  for  a  giv- 
en length  of  time.  The  English  boxers  go  through 
such  a  course  in  order  to  prepare  themselves  for  public 
performances,  and  we  can  see  no  reason  why  others 
should  not  imitate  their  example  so  far  as  the  training  is 
concerned,  in  order  to  gain  that  perfect  health  which  it  is 
said  these  men  enjoy.  There  are  few,  however,  who 
would  submit  to  such  discipline  without  some  special 
motive,  other  than  the  enjoyment  of  ordinary  health. 
But  that  the  reader  may  observe  how  these  men  deny 
themselves,  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  mere  muscular 
20* 


234  MENTAL    AND    PHYSICAL   EXERCISE. 

power,  and  that  for  no  laudable  purpose,  we  will  give  a 
lew  of  the  rules  of  training. 

There  are  Professors  of  Sparring,  wrhose  sole  business 
it  is,  to  teach  the  art,  by  learning  their  pupils  the  man- 
ner and  time  of  striking,  as  well  as  the  modes  of  de- 
fence ;  and  the  means  of  gaining  muscular  strength  by 
diet  and  exercise.  While  training,  they  are  directed  to 
eat  beef  and  mutton,  rather  under  than  over  done,  and 
this  without  any  seasoning,  or  sauce,  the  only  addition  to 
these  two  articles  of  solid  food,  being  bread  or  biscuit. 
Neither  veal,  lamb,  pork,  fish,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  pud- 
dings, pastry,  or  vegetables  of  any  kind  are  allowed. 
The  beef  and  mutton  must  be  fresh,  that  is,  not  salted, 
and  may  be  cooked  by  roasting,  broiling,  or  boiling, 
alternately,  or  as  best  suits  the  appetite  of  the  trained. 

The  strictest  temperance  is  absolutely  insisted  on,  by 
all  regular  trainers,  good  home-brewred  beer,  or  ale, 
being  recommended  as  the  ordinary  drink  at  meals. 
Those  wrho  do  not  like  the  beer  are  allowed  a  little  red 
wine  and  water,  with  their  dinners,  but  not  to  exceed  in 
quantity  eight  ounces,  or  half  a  pint  per  day,  spirits  of 
every  kind  being  strictly  prohibited. 

Eight  hours  sleep  are  considered  necessary,  but  this  is 
left  to  the  previous  habits  of  the  person,  and  may  be 
varied  according  to  the  amount  of  exercise  during  the 
day. 

The  breakfast  hour  is  eight  o'clock ;  dinner  at  two ; 
supper  being  entirely  omitted,  or  to  consist  of  a  little  bit 
of  cold  meat  at  eight ;  after  which,  a  walk  is  taken,  and 
they  retire  to  bed  at  ten. 

Much  exercise,  consisting  of  sparring  and  walking,  is 
taken  during  the  whole  time,  of  training,  and  undoubtedly 
the  high  degree  of  cheerfulness  in  which  men  thus  situ- 
ated indulge,  contributes  greatly  to  the  good  effects  of 
the  comparative  temperance  to  which  they  are  restricted, 
at  least  for  a  considerable  time. 

Dr.  Kitchener  says,  that  "  by  this  mode  of  proceeding 
for  two  or  three  months  the  constitution  of  the  human 
frame  is  greatly  improved,  and  the  courage  proportiona- 
bly  increased.  A  person  who  was  breathless,  and  pant- 
ing on  the  least  exertion,  and  had  a  certain  share  of 
those  nervous  and  billious  complaints,  which  are  occa- 


PRACTICAL    INFERENCES.  235 

sionally  the  companions  of  all  who  reside  in  great 
cities,  by  such  means  becomes  enabled  to  run  with  ease 
and  fleetness." 

"  The  restorative  process  having  proceeded  with 
healthful  regularity,  every  part  of  the  constitution  is 
effectually  invigorated,  and  a  man  feels  so  conscious  of 
the  augmentation  of  his  powers,  both  bodily  and  men- 
tal, that  he  will  undertake  with  alacrity  a  task  which 
before,  he  could  not  but  shrink  from  encountering." 

About  two  months  is  considered  the  average  time 
necessary  to  fit  a  man  for  the  ring,  or  for  public  exhibi- 
tion as  a  boxer  by  the  above  means  ;  and  it  is  particu- 
larly worthy  of  observation,  that  alcoholic  liquors  are 
discarded  by  these  men,  for  no  other  reason  than  that 
experience  has  taught  them,  that  its  effects  are  to  weak- 
en the  muscular  powers  and  destroy  the  courage  of 
their  pupils.  Therefore,  he  who  has  much  labor  to  per- 
form, or  a  battle  to  fight,  ought  never  to  drink  spirits. 


PRACTICAL    INFERENCES    FROM   THE    FOREGOING    PRINCI- 
PLES. 

Connection  between  the  Brain  and  the  Muscles. — The 
intimate  connection  which  exists  between  the  muscles 
and  the  brain — between  the  nervous  system  generally, 
and  those  parts  by  which  the  motions  of  the  human 
frame  are  produced,  and  which  connection  has  been 
illustrated  by  a  reference  to  the  voluntary  muscles, — indi- 
cate, in  a  most  decided  manner  the  mutual  dependence 
which  subsists  between  them  ;  and  tend  to  show  as 
clearly  as  the  nature  of  the  case  will  admit,  the  necessi- 
ty of  employing  both  the  nervous  and  muscular  func- 
tions at  the  same  time,  in  order  that  both  should  be  in  a 
healthy  state.  And  especially  do  these  principles  show, 
that  the  nervous  system  cannot  long  be  employed  alone 
without  a  derangement  in  the  functions  of  both. 

It  has  been  our  chief  object  in  the  foregoing  sections, 
to  show  the  connection  which  exists  between  the  ner- 
vous system  and  the  voluntary  muscles,  but  this  may  be 
taken  as  an  example  of  the  existence  of  the  same  rela- 
tion between  that  system  and  all  the  muscular  fibres  in 


236       MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

the  body,  whether  voluntary,  or  not.  Thus  the  heart, 
and  the  muscles  of  respiration,  are  equally,  with  the 
voluntary  muscles  dependent  on  the  action  of  the  brain. 
The  organs  of  mastication,  and  digestion  are  also  under 
the  same  influence. 

In. every  series  of  actions,  therefore,  which  take  place 
in  any  part  of  the  whole  system,  there  is  a  mutual  sym- 
pathy and  dependence  on  some  other  part. 


MUSCULAR   EXERCISE    OF    THE    CLERGY    AND    OTHER 
LITERARY   MEN* 

And  now  we  come  to  the  more  especial  object  of  this 
part  of  our  work,  which  is,  to  show  that  the  vigorous 
functions  of  the  brain  cannot  long  be  sustained,  without 
a  corresponding  exertion  of  the  muscles,  and  that  this 
exertion  absolutely  requires  that  the  brain  should  be  more 
or  lets  excited.  We  intend  that  these  doctrines  should 
apply  more  particularly  to  students  and  literary  men, 
and  we  shall  begin  by  showing  the  duty  of  ministers  of 
the  gospel  in  respect  to  bodily  exercise.  The  present 
condition  of  the  clergy  and  other  literary  men  of  our 
country,  points  to  the  vast  importance  of  seeking  some 
remedy  against  the  consequences  of  literary  pursuits, 
and  sedentary  habits,  on  their  corporeal  and  mental 
functions.  Not  only  ministers  of  all  ages,  but  students, 
only  a  few  years  advanced  in  their  studies,  are  constant- 
ly " breaking  down"  as  it  is  termed,  under  the  pressure 
of  their  literary  burthens ;  many  of  the  first  class  being 
obliged  to  go  to  Europe,  or  otherwise  suspend  their 
labors  in  order  to  recruit  their  worn  out  frames,  and 
rest  awhile  from  their  cerebral  occupations ;  while  per- 
haps an  equal  number  of  the  last,  find  themselves  under 
the  necessity  of  retiring  entirely  from  the  field  of  litera- 
ry pursuits  and  of  seeking  some  employment,  in  which 
less  is  required  of  the  nervous,  and  more  of  the  muscu- 
lar system  ;  and  thus  the  literary  or  ministerial  services 
of  many  young  men  of  great  promise,  and  whose  labors 
and  influence  would  be  highly  important  to  the  church, 
or  the  interests  of  education,  are  in  a  great  measure, 
lost  to  the  country. 


MUSCULAR    EXERCISE    OF    LITERARY    MEN.  237 

Causes  of  these  failures. — With  respect  to  the  causes 
of  these  calamities,  for  such  they  certainly  are,  both 
\vith  respect  to  individuals,  and  the  nation,  there  can  be 
only  one  opinion.  They  are  brought  on  by  too  much  men- 
tal and  too  little  muscular  labor.  Thus  the  balance  of 
the  system,  which  as  we  have  seen,  requires  a  due 
proportion  between  the  exercise  of  the  nervous,  and 
muscular  powers,  is  lost, — the  equilibrium  of  health  is 
destroyed  in  consequence  of  the  predominance  of  the 
sentient,  over  the  muscular  principle. 

Obvious  effects  of  too  much  mental  labor. — In  such 
subjects,  it  will  be  found  that  after  a  while,  the  flesh  be- 
comes soft  and  flabby,  while  the  muscles  can  only  be  made 
to  perform  their  ordinary  functions  with  difficulty, — all 
continued,  or  violent  exercise  is  instinctively  avoided  and 
even  a  walk  of  a  mile  or  two,  at  the  urgent  request  of  a 
friend,  and  which  once  gave  so  much  pleasure,  is  now 
undertaken  with  reluctance.  Fatigue,  even  after  walk- 
ing but  a  few  hundred  yards  becomes  the  prominent 
feeling,  and  the  man  often  returns  home,  after  a  short 
trial,  for  fear  that  he  shall  not  be  able  to  do  so,  if  he 
continues  his  walk.  Having  returned,  perhaps  out  of 
breath,  he  seats  himself  and  concludes,  that  exercise, 
since  it  brings  on  fatigue,  is  not  only  useless,  but  hurtful 
to  him ;  and  thus  if  he  cannot  be  made  to  change  this 
opinion,  consigns  himself  to  the  nearly  hopeless  condi- 
tion of  a  confirmed  "  literary  dyspeptic." 

Meantime  the  nervous  system  increases  in  suscepti- 
bility in  proportion  as  the  muscles  lose  their  contractile 
powers,  and  fall  into  a  state  of  weakness.  The  subject 
becomes  exceedingly  sensitive  to  nervous  impressions. 
Occurrences  of  little  consequence,  and  which  in  his  for- 
mer condition  would  have  produced  no  sensation,  now 
affect  him  very  unpleasantly.  He  becomes  irritated 
and  vexed  at  every  little  mishap  in  the  affairs  of  life. 
His  friends,  he  begins  to  imagine  do  not  behave  towards 
him  as  formerly ;  they  have  deserted  him  in  his  afflic- 
tion ;  and  his  own  family  are  wanting  in  that  kindness, 
which  was  formerly  shown  him,  and  which  his  present 
weak  condition  now  particularly  demands.  At  the 


238       MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

same  time  he  finds  it  exceedingly  difficult  for  him  to  pro- 
ceed with  his  literary  labors.  His  head  often  feels  as 
though  there  was  a  rush  of  blood  upon  the  brain  ; — his 
intellect  becomes  clouded,  and  he  cannot  keep  along 
with  the  thread  of  his  subject,  or  pursue  his  studies  as 
formerly.  Sometimes  he  throws  down  his  pen,  in  utter 
despair,  and  thinks  he  would  willingly  change  places 
with  any  laborer  he  happens  to  see  in  the  street. 

There  are  but  a  few  of  the  feelings,  and  troubles,  and 
perplexities,  which  a  student  suffers,  when  he  allows 
his  nervous  to  gain  the  ascendency  over  his  muscular  sys- 
tem, and  unless  some  remedy  be  sought,  will  most  prob- 
ably end  in  palsy  or  apoplexy,  or  at  least,  in  such  a  con- 
dition of  the  system,  as  to  render  it  incapable  of  any 
useful  employment,  for  a  length  of  time,  depending 
more,  or  less  on  that,  during  which  it  has  remained  in 
such  a  condition. 

Clergymen  not  allowed  exciting  exercise. — The  cause 
of  these  affections  we  have  said,  is  an  undue  proportion 
of  mental  labor,  when  compared  with  that  of  muscular 
exercise. 

With  respect  to  clergymen  it  is  well  known  that  there 
exists  an  artificial  difficulty  in  jtheir  indulging  in  that 
kind  of  exercise  which  is  most  congenial  to  mental  and 
muscular  vigor,  owing  to  the  habits  and  opinions  of  soci- 
ety. For  it  is  a  law  of  the  system,  which  applies  to 
ministers  equally  with  others,  that  no  exercise  is  effec- 
tual in  restoring,  or  maintaining,  the  equilibrium  between 
the  nervous,  and  muscular  systems,  unless  the  brain  is  at 
the  same  time  excited.  By  this  we  mean,  that  the  exer- 
cise must  be  of  that  kind  in  which  the  mind,  for  the 
time,  takes  a  strong  interest.  This  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary, nor  is  it  we  believe  possible,  for  any  one  who  has 
lost  his  muscular  energy  by  studious  and  sedentary  hab- 
its, to  regain  it  by  any  kind  of  exercise  which  does  not 
give  pleasure,  or  to  use  a  more  common  phrase,  "  carry 
the  mind  along  with  it." 

Nor  is  it  in  the  power  of  students  generally,  to  retain 
their  vigor  of  mind,  and  body,  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time  without  the  use  of  some  such  exercise. 

The  principles  we  have  already  drawn,  from  the  fact, 


MUSCULAR   EXERCISE    OF   LITERARY    MEX.  239 

that  every  muscle  has  distributed  to  it,  one  set  of  nerves 
for  muscular  action,  and  another  for  cerebral  impres- 
sions, proves  beyond  all  doubt,  that  this  is  the  case.  The 
vigorous  and  healthy  action  of  the  muscles  absolutely 
require  that  the  brain,  at  the  same  time,  should  be  under 
excitement,  otherwise  the  nervous  influence  from  which 
muscular  contractility  is  derived,  will  not  be  supplied. 

Now  the  great  obstacle  to  clerical  amusements  ap- 
pears to  arise  from  the  circumstance,  that  the  feelings 
and  prejudices  of  the  public,  to  a  considerable  extent,  at 
least,  will  not  allow  those  men  to  partake  of  such  gym- 
nastic sports  as  people  generally  may  indulge  in,  and 
which  of  all  others,  is  the  kind  of  exercise  they  most  re- 
quire. 

We  are  far  from  desiring  to  see  the  dignity  of  the 
clergy  lowered,  and  we  should  regret  as  much  as  oth- 
ers, to  see  them  doing  acts,  which  would  in  the  least 
degree  tend  to  lessen  the  respect  which  they  have,  and 
ought  to  maintain  from  the  public.  But  it  seems  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  something  should  be  done  on  this 
subject.  Not  a  year  elapses,  but  a  number,  often  of  the 
most  devoted  and  useful  members  of  the  sacred  office, 
in  different  parts  of  our  country,  are  under  the  necessi- 
ty of  leaving  their  people,  being  literally  "  worn  out " 
with  their  clerical  labors.  This,  it  is  well  known,  is  the 
case,  in  a  greater,  or  less  degree,  with  all  the  orthodox 
denominations,  the  ministers  of  which,  are  expected 
every  sabbath  in  the  year,  at  least,  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  to  produce  two  well  written  sermons,  besides  a 
semi- weekly  "lecture  ;  and  to  perform  other  parish  duties 
requiring  as  a  whole,  almost  unremitted  mental  labor 
from  one  year's  end  to  another. 

Men  incapable  of  constant  mental  labor. — Now  the 
facts  clearly  prove  that  human  beings,  taken  as  a  body, 
are  incapable,  under  such  circumstances,  of  sustaining 
such  mental  burthens  ;  they  sink  down  under  them  from 
debility  and  exhaustion,  and  one  after  another,  even  in 
the  prime  of  life,  and  in  the  midst  of  their  usefulness,  dis- 
appear from  public  scenes,  and  in  not  a  few  instances, 
find  that  they  have  done  so  too  late. 

Clergymen  are  still  men,  and  like  others,  are  subject 
to  the  laws  which  govern  vital  and  corporeal  action ; 


240        MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE* 

and  it  is  therefore  plain,  either  that  the  public  must  dis- 
pense with  a  portion  of  their  services,  or  that  they  must 
be  allowed  to  indulge  in  recreative  exercises  ;  otherwise 
they  will  inevitably  sink  under  their  mental  labors,  and 
many  of  them  at  least,  go  down  to  premature  graves. 

Former  condition  of  the  Clergy. — The  condition  of 
the  clergy  in  this  country,  is  entirely  different  from  what 
it  was  within  the  memory  of  many  of  them,  who  are  still 
able  to  perform  their  clerical  duties  ;  and  who  have  lived 
to  see  several  generations  of  their  younger  brethren  come 
forward,  and  pass  away,  while  they,  themselves,  have 
continued  their  labors  until  the  present  day. 

A  great  proportion  of  our  ministers,  no  longer  than  fif- 
ty years  since,  were  settled  on  farms,  with  salaries  of 
from  two,  to  three,  and  seldom  four  hundred  dollars  per 
year.  They  were  therefore  under  the  necessity  of  la- 
boring with  their  hands,  in  order  to  maintain  their  fami- 
lies. Besides,  their  flocks  were  often  so  scattered  as  to 
occupy  a  considerable  portion  of  time,  and  some  bodily 
exercise,  in  order  to  visit  the  several  families  even  once 
a  year.  At  these  visits,  the  minister  always  received 
presents  of  provisions  from  his  parishioners,  but  in  case 
the  visit  was  not  made,  the  present  was  not  given ;  a 
good  old  custom,  which  always  insured  every  family  in 
the  parish,  a  personal  acquaintance  with  their  minister. 

At  that  period  too,  the  mental  labors  of  the  clergy 
were  not  more  than  about  one  third  what  they  are  at 
the  present  day,  especially  ia  towns.  They  preached 
two  sermons  a  week ;  in  addition  to  which,  an  extra  ser- 
mon once  a  month,  or  once  in  two  months,  preparatory 
to  the  communion,  made  up  their  stated  labors. 

Here,  it  is  obvious  that  the  exertions  of  the  mind  were 
not  disproportioned  to  those  of  the  muscles,  and  hence 
the  clergy  were  then  among  the  longest  lived  individuals 
of  their  parishes,  as  is  proved  by  the  living  witnesses  of 
that  body  which  here  and  there  still  remain. 

It  is  unnecessary  further  to  contrast  the  parochial  la- 
bors of  the  clergy  of  the  present  day,  with  those  of  their 
fathers  in  the  church.  It  is  well  known  that  the  increase 
of  population,  as  well  as  a  more  advanced  state  of  edu- 
cation, have  rendered  it  necessary  to  increase  these  la- 


MUSCULAR   EXERCISE    OP   LITERARY   MEN.          241 

bors  more  than  two  fold.  At  the  same  time,  as  their  fa- 
thers required  no  extra  exercise — no  relaxation  from  their 
parochial  duties,  the  public  appear  to  have  grown  up  in 
the  belief  that  their  sons  do  not ;  and  that  it  would  be 
derogatory  to  clerical  sobriety  and  dignity,  for  them  to 
indulge  in  any  sort  of  pleasant  unbending  of  their  minds. 

Different  effects  of  Exercise. — Sawing  and  splitting 
wood,  with  perhaps  a  little  work  in  the  garden,  and  rid- 
ing on  horseback  a  few  miles,  or  walking  the  streets  for 
an  hour  or  two,  form  the  chief  amusements,  and  the 
chief  muscular  exercise  of  the  most  laborious,  and,  in 
the  estimation  of  the  great  majority  of  the  people,  the 
most  useful  body  of  men  in  community.  Even  this 
small  amount  of  exercise  is  seldom  taken  regularly,  and 
if  so,  is  of  very  little  use  to  the  subject,  as  there  is  no  oth- 
er object  in  view,  but  merely  to  perform  a  duty.  The 
thread  of  the  next  discourse  frequently  remains  unbro- 
ken, and  often  the  individual  hurries  home,  while  the 
ink  of  his  last  paragraph  is  hardly  dry,  to  record  some 
new  idea,  or  write  down  what  he  has  made  ready  in  his 
mind  during  his  absence. 

To  one  whose  body  and  mind  begins  to  suffer,  in  con- 
sequence of  confinement  to  his  study,  and  perpetual 
mental  exertions,  nearly  all  who  have  experienced  its 
effects,  will  allow  that  such  exercise  is  of  little  or  no  use. 
Such  an  one  wants  a  motive  ;  he  wants  cerebral  excite- 
ment to  co-operate  with,  and  invigorate  muscular  ac- 
tion ;  and  it  will  astonish  those,  who,  for  the  first  time  no- 
tice the  different  effects  on  their  own  feelings,  of  forced 
muscular  exertions,  and  that  sanitive  exercise  which  is 
produced  when  the  mind  is  intensely  fixed  on  an  object, 
the  attainment  of  which  requires  the  strongest  corporeal 
exertions.  The  one  induces  fatigue  of  the  body,  without 
at  all  relieving  the  mind  ;  while  the  other,  so  far  from 
producing  fatigue,  brings  the  whole  system  into  a  highly 
pleasant  state  of  freedom,  and  elasticity ;  while  the  mind, 
sympathising  with  these  pleasant  sensations,  becomes 
invigorated,  and  is  again  ready  for  the  performance  of 
its  proper  functions. 

21 


242  MENTAL   AND   PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

Continued  muscular  efforts  require  cerebral  excite- 
TH^.—The  principles  of  physiology  which  we  have 
already  explained,  show  most  decidedly,  that  continued 
corporeal  exertions  may  be  maintained  under  the  stim- 
ulus of  the  mind,  which  the  same  individual  could  not 
possibly  sustain  under  coercion. 

We  see  the  exercise  of  this  principle  every  day.  A 
boy  with  his  kite  or  gun,  will  exert  all  the  powers  of  his 
muscles  for  five  or  six  hours,  or  even  for  the  whole  day, 
and  still  hardly  complain  of,  or  feel  fatigue  ;  while  the 
same  amount  of  muscular  power  exerted  against  his  will, 
could  not  possibly  have  been  sustained,  though  his  life 
might  depend  on  the  performance. 

Dr.  Darwin's  case. — A  case  mentioned  by  Dr.  Dar- 
win, illustrates  our  subject.  A  young  man  full  of  desire 
to  see  his  female  friend,  who  was  fifty-five  miles  from 
him,  decided  to  undertake  the  journey  on  foot  the  next 
day ;  and  which,  under  the  stimulus  of  hope  and  expect- 
ation, he  performed  without  difficulty.  Having  arrived 
at  her  residence,  he  found  that  she  was  attending  a  ball 
in  the  vicinity,  to  which  place  of  course  he  repaired  with- 
out delay.  Here  were  new  causes  of  excitement ;  the 
object  of  all  his  thoughts,  he  now  saw  dressed  in  gay  at- 
tire ;  the  music,  the  friends,  the  dance,  all  tended  to 
make  him  forget  his  long  journey ;  and  as  though  fresh 
from  the  neighborhood,  he  joined  in  the  pleasures  of  the 
evening,  and  danced  most  of  the  night  with  his  wonted 
vigor  and  vivacity,  and  all  this  without  fatigue. 

Now  had  this  performance  been  commenced  by  com- 
pulsion, that  is,  had  this  person  been  made  to  take  the 
same  number  of  steps  at  the  command  of  a  master,  and 
then  in  the  ball  room  had  he  been  compelled  by  the  whip, 
to  use  the  same  gestures  that  he  did  with  his  lady,  at  the 
sound  of  the  music,  what  think  you  would  have  been  the 
consequence  ?  Undoubtedly  he  would  have  sunk  down 
and  died  from  exhaustion,  under  such  treatment. 

In  armies,  it  is  well  known  that  long  marches  can  be 
endured  under  the  excitement  of  music ;  while  without 
this,  many  of  the  soldiers  would  be  unable  to  perform  the 
duty  required,  and  would  be  left  behind  even  in  the 
country  of  the  enemy.  In  forced  marches  therefore, 
the  commander  who  understands  this,  divides  his  mu- 


NATURE    REQUIRES    EXCITING    EXERCISE.  243 

sic,  so  as  to  keep  a  part  of  the  band  constantly  playing 
such  airs  as  to  accommodate  the  pace  of  the  marching 
soldiers. 

The  same  principle  is  involved  in  the  attempt  of  an 
adult,  to  follow  a  child  of  three  or  four  years  old,  where- 
ever  it  chooses  to  go  for  a  whole  day ;  taking  a  similar 
number  of  steps,  and  using  similar  gestures.  A  healthy, 
active  child,  if  entirely  unrestrained,  will  soon  convince 
the  unthinking  adult  who  undertakes  such  a  task,  that 
he  has  a  day's  work  before  him  which  he  little  expected  ; 
nor  do  we  believe  it  in  the  power  of  many  persons  to 
perform  such  a  feat.  The  reason  is  obvious  :  the  child 
is  constantly  excited  by  his  play,  and  by  a  succession  of 
new  objects,  and  new  motives  ;  while  the  adult,  having 
no  mental  excitement,  by  which  the  nervous  influence  is 
sent  from  the  brain  to  the  muscles,  their  contractions 
are  merely  mechanical,  and  therefore  they  soon  become 
exhausted. 

A  parallel  case  is,  where  two  men  of  equal  muscular 
powers  go  out  on  a  sporting  excursion,  the  one  a  keen, 
and  ardent  sportsman,  and  the  other  going  as  a  mere 
spectator.  The  former  having  a  motive,  and  being  con- 
stantly intent  upon  his  game,  but  not  thinking  of  himself, 
will  traverse  bogs,  bushes  and  briers,  for  miles,  without 
being  aware  of  distance,  or  time,  or  place,  and  without 
feeling  the  least  fatigue ;  while  the  spectator,  trying  to 
keep  with  his  companion,  without  any  other  motive  than 
doing  so,  soon  becomes  so  exhausted  as  to  be  incapable 
of  further  action,  often  wondering  at  the  same  time,  how 
it  is  possible  for  his  companion  to  go  at  such  a  rate, 
through  such  walking,  and  for  so  long  a  time,  without 
complaining  of  fatigue. 


NATURE    REQUIRES    EXCITING    EXERCISE. 

It  is  in  vain  to  plead  natural  gravity,  or  a  want  of  dis- 
position to  indulge  in  those  exercises  which  relax  the 
mind  of  the  studious,  as  an  excuse  for  denying  them  to 
others,  or  not  adopting  such  for  ourselves.  Nature, 
whose  laws  we  profess  to  follow  in  this  matter,  makes 
no  such  excuse.  On  the  contrary,  unless  the  system  be 


244        MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

worn  out  with  age,  or  sickness,  there  exists  in  the  feel- 
ings of  every  person,  a  natural  disposition  for  play,  both 
in  the  mind  and  muscles ;  and  where  the  restraints  of 
society,  or  circumstances  are  removed,  we  may  every 
where  observe  illustrations  of  this  law  of  nature.  Hence 
at  watering  places,  at  the  sea-shore,  or  any  other  place 
devoted  to  public  amusement,  and  relaxation,  persons 
of  the  most  erect  gravity  at  home,  and  even  members  of 
the  sacred  office,  throwing  off  the  mantle  of  restraint, 
which  had,  perhaps,  for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  hid  their 
natural  dispositions,  not  only  from  all  their  associates,  but 
almost  from  themselves,  again  become  boys,  and  play  all 
sorts  of  recreative  games  with  as  much  interest,  and 
nearly  with  the  same  agility  as  they  did  twenty  or  thirty 
years  before. 

Men  bound  to  use  exercise  which  conduces  to  health. — 
Now  we  do  not  make  the  above  remarks  by  way  of 
accusation,  or  for  the  purpose  of  hinting  that  such  indul- 
gences involve  either  hypocrisy  or  levity.  On  the  con- 
trary, such  facts  illustrate  and  confirm  the  principles  of 
organic  life  which  we  have  attempted  to  establish  with  the 
best  intentions,  and  for  the  best  of  purposes.  They  show 
that  nature  is  averse  to  the  solemn  restraints  of  society ; 
and  that  exciting  exercise,  because  it  is  most  agreeable  and 
most  natural,  is  the  only  kind  which  relieves  the  body  and 
mind,  when  the  first  has  become  torpid  from  too  little, 
and  the  last  from  too  much  exercise.  And  for  the  pur- 
pose of  verifying  those  principles,  we  would  call  upon 
those  who  now  and  then  yield  to  the  mandates  of  na- 
ture, (whatever  may  be  their  acquired  gravity,)  and 
reckless  of  muscular  power,  or  mental  reputation,  enjoy 
for  a  time,  some  sort  of  exciting  play,  to  say  whether 
the  effects  are  not  only  congenial  both  to  body  and 
mind,  and  whether  they  do  not  believe  that  under  such 
amusements,  frequently  repeated,  a  man  would  perform 
a  greater  amount  of  mental  labor,  and  continue  longer 
in  health,  and  in  life,  than  he  would,  to  proceed  in  the 
usual  manner,  of  either  taking  no  exercise  at  all,  or  only 
that  in  which  the  muscles  are  compelled  by  force  to  per- 
form their  duty,  as  is  the  case  with  most  literary  men  ? 


NATURE    REQUIRES    EXCITING    EXERCISE.  245 

If  this  is  so,  and  which  we  are  confident  that  not  a 
man  who  has  made  the  trial,  will  deny,  then  is  it  not  the 
moral,  and  even  religious  duty  of  every  student  to  so  far 
coincide  with  the  dictates,  and  laws  of  nature,  as  to 
employ  every  means,  which  are  not  immoral  in  their 
tendency,  to  enable  him,  by  the  preservation  of  his 
health  and  life,  to  do  every  good  in  his  power  for  the 
benefit  of  his  fellow  man  ? 

Says  the  pious  and  learned  Dr.  Cheyne,  "  The  studi- 
ous, the  contemplative,  the  valetudinarian,  and  those  of 
weak  nerves,  if  they  aim  at  health,  and  long  life,  must 
make  exercise  in  a  good  air,  a  part  of  their  religion. 

A  man  who  believes  himself  to  be  a  useful  member  of 
community,  and  who  becomes  conscious  that  his  occu- 
pation, whatever  it  may  be,  requires  relaxation,  and 
that  if  he  does  not  indulge  in  it,  his  health  will  suffer, 
and  his  life  will  be  endangered,  would  certainly  be  con- 
sidered by  himself  and  by  others  as  wanting  in  a  moral 
duty,  if  he  neglected  such  relaxation.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances, no  one  would  doubt  what  would  be  the 
duty  of  a  mechanic,  both  with  respect  to  his  family  and 
his  country ;  and  if  the  same  moral  rule  holds  with  re- 
spect to  literary  men  and  ministers,  then  they  are  as 
much  bound  to  employ  brain  exciting  means  to  preserve 
their  mental  vigor,  as  the  mechanic  is  to  relax  from 
his  labor,  for  it  has  been  shown,  we  think,  that  no  other 
means  will  effectually  answer  this  purpose. 

Effects  of  incessant  mental  labor. — On  this  subject, 
the  author  of  this  work  speaks  from  experience,  and 
therefore  knows  that  he  tells  the  truth.  For,  having  tried 
the  ordinary  routine  of  exercise,  such  as  wood  sawing, 
gardening,  &c.,  he  has  been  compelled,  against  his  for- 
mer prejudices  to  resort  to  "  field  sports,"  with  his  poin- 
ter and  gun,  not  only  as  the  means  by  which  he  has  been 
enabled  to  continue  in  a  sedentary  and  studious  profes- 
sion, but  also  to  preserve  himself  from  the  dreadful  con- 
sequences of  nervous  excitability,  and  especially  from 
the  most  horrid,  and  appalling  of  all  sensations,  that 
which  attends  palpitation  of  the  heart,  from  an  accumu- 
lation of  the  nervous  influence.  The  most  acute  pain  is 
a  comfort,  and  even  a  pleasure,  when  compared  to  a  feel- 
21* 


246  MENTAL    AND    PHYSICAL   EXERCISE. 

ing  from  which  the  sufferer  cannot  avoid  the  belief  that  his 
heart  swells  to  twice  the  natural  size,  occasionally  turns 
over,  backwards,  and  forwards,  and  is  every  instant  in 
danger  of  bursting  open  and  spilling  its  vital  contents 
into  his  chest :  at  the  same  time  he  feels  that  his  pulse 
beats  half  a  dozen  strokes  in  a  moment  and  then  stands 
still,  until  forced  by  the  stimulus  of  the  blood  to  begin 
the  same  rapid  motions  again.  And  yet  all  this,  and 
even  more  than  we  dare  to  describe  to  the  literary  inva- 
lid, is  according  to  the  woful  experience  of  the  one  who 
writes  this,  the  consequence  of  study  at  the  rate  of 
fourteen  hours  per  day,  for  a  series  of  months.  And  yet 
all  these  symptoms  were  unfelt  and  forgotten  during  the 
most  violent  exercise  in  which  the  mind  was  intensely 
interested,  viz.  field  sports. 

Mere  attention  to  diet  of  little  use. — A  spare  diet, 
omission  of  dinner,  vegetable  food,  bran  bread,  and 
indeed  all  the  remedies  which  the  science  abstemious- 
ness can  suggest  will  never  prove  antidotes  to  these 
fearful  sensations.  A  laborious  student,  like  a  laborious 
workman,  requires  nutriment,  nor  can  he  sustain  himself 
in  his  literary  pursuits  without  it.  It  is  true  that  where 
the  muscles  are  little  exercised,  the  quantity  of  solid  food 
may  be  diminished ;  but  he  who  goes  to  work  at  a  dif- 
ficult piece  of  composition  with  a  hungry  stomach,  will 
never  finish  it  to  suit  himself  until  this  sensation  is  satis- 
fied. 

An  easy  and  comfortable  state  of  the  animal  system 
is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  student,  and  so  far  as  we 
knowr,  this  is  only  to  be  obtained  by  a  generous  diet,  and 
exciting  exercise,  according  to  the  wants  and  feelings  of 
the  subject. 

As  to  the  use  of  medicines,  diet  and  rules  of  conduct, 
without  muscular  action,  for  the  alleviation  of  nervous 
palpitation,  they  are  worse  than  useless,  because  they 
offer  false  hopes  to  the  sufferer,  and  prevent  his  seeking 
the  proper  remedy  in  season.  And  we  hereby  warn 
those  into  whose  hands  these  remarks  may  fall,  and  who 
are  thus  afflicted,  never  to  be  caught  by  such  chaff,  as 
bran  bread,  and  its  adjuvants  as  a  remedy  for  what  can 


NATURE    REQUIRES    EXCITING    EXERCISE.  247 

only  be  cured  by  muscular  motion.  You  may  starve  your- 
selves to  skeletons  and  my  friends,  still  your  horrid  sensa- 
tions will  increase,  until  you  adopt  some  exciting  muscular 
exercise  as  a  remedy.  Let  your  stomachs  take  care  of 
themselves,  and  never  think  of  what  you  eat,  or  drink 
except  at  the  moment,  only  taking  the  precaution  to  be 
temperate  in  both,  and  by  the  use  of  such  exercise, 
repeated  every  day  and  increased  according  to  feelings 
and  circumstances,  of  which  you  are  the  best  judges, 
you  will  gradually  rid  yourselves  of  all  that  train  of 
symptoms  incident  to  nervous  excitability,  which  have 
been  brought  on  by  sedentary  and  mental  habits. 

It  is  not  denied  that  there  are  great  differences  in  the 
amount  of  literary  labor  which  different  men  are  capa- 
ble of  performing  under  the  same  circumstances.  We 
are  perfectly  aware  that  there  are  Thomas  Tophams  in 
the  mental  as  well  as  in  the  muscular  departments  of 
human  exertions.  But  we  write  for  those  who  labor 
under  the  common  laws  of  the  animal  economy, — those 
laws  which  ordinarily  govern  the  actions  and  powers  of 
human  beings  ;  and  not  for  those,  whose  iron  constitu- 
tions are  equally  unhurt  by  any  amount  of  cerebral,  or 
muscular  performances  which  it  is  in  their  power  to  ac- 
complish. These  are  exceptions  to  the  general  laws 
which  govern  our  species  and  to  such  we  have  nothing 
to  say,  because,  not  suffering  from  their  labors  they  re- 
quire no  remedies. 

Cheerfulness  a  remedy. — The  best  tempered  men, 
after  long  confinement  to  study,  and  who  take  no  pains 
to  cultivate  a  cheerful  acquaintance  with  their  friends, 
are  observed  to  grow  more  or  less  morose,  in  their  dis- 
positions, until  they  finally  contract  such  a  habit  of  being 
out  of  humor,  especially  at  home,  as  to  become  such 
disagreeable  companions,  that  their  former  friends,  if 
they  call  upon  them  at  all,  do  it  as  a  matter  of  duty,  and 
not  for  the  purpose  of  having  a  few  moments  of  enli- 
vening conversation,  as  formerly.  Of  this  disposition, 
the  subject  himself  oftens  becomes  sensible,  which  dis- 
covery, instead  of  showing  him  the  necessity  of  relaxa- 
tion, and  joining  in  cheerful  society  as  a  remedy,  too  often 


248       MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

only  proves  a  source  of  vexation,  which  increases,  rath- 
er than  alleviates  the  evil. 

Now  both  moroseness  and  cheerfulness  are  often  ac- 
quired habits,  arising  from  the  circumstances  in  which 
the  person  is  placed.  Let  one,  for  instance,  to  whom 
nature  has  given  a  pleasant  disposition,  be  so  situated  in 
life,  as  to  be  constantly  perplexed  with  its  cares,  or  let 
him  be  under  the  necessity  of  pursuing  studies,  which  do 
not  interest  his  mind,  and  which,  therefore,  are  a  source 
of  vexation  to  him  ;  and  the  contracted  brow,  will  be- 
come habitual ;  and  the  vexed  spirit  which  it  indicates 
will  finally  become  so  far  a  second  nature,  as  to  be  re- 
tained, even  long  after  the  circumstances,  which  produ- 
ced these  unhappy  results  have  ceased.  Such  is  the 
force  of  habit. 

On  the  contrary,  w^  often  see  those  whose  disposi- 
tions are  far  from  being  naturally  pleasant,  but  who, 
mixing  with  enlivening  society,  and  being  placed  in  such 
conditions  in  life  as  to  escape  its  corroding  cares  and 
perplexities,  finally  become  agreeable,  and  even  courte- 
ous companions,  having  acquired  happy  dispositions,  in 
consequence  of  being  constantly  pleased  with  their  own 
conditions  and  circumstances. 

But  whatever  their  conditions  in  life  may  be,  it  is  un- 
doubtedly the  duty  of  all  persons  to  cultivate  cheerful 
and  happy  dispositions.  Christians  in  an  especial  man- 
ner are  called  upon  to  rejoice — to  set  examples  of  a  hap- 
py state  of  mind,  and  to  show  by  their  countenances, 
and  actions,  that  they  are  contented  with  the  lot  in  which 
Providence  has  cast  them.  A  sour,  crabbed  Christian, 
presents  a  combination  of  elements  so  heterogenous,  that 
the  world  are  always  doubtful  whether  they  ever  exist  in 
the  same  person.  How  indeed,  do  such  adorn  the  doc- 
trines they  profess  ? 

It  is  true,  that  there  are  afflictions,  under  which, 
for  a  time,  a  happy  countenance  would  betray  a  want 
of  common  feeling,  and  therefore  would  be  unbecom- 
ing and  improper;  but  under  all  the  ordinary  cares 
and  perplexities  of  life,  of  which  every  one  has  more  or 
less,  we  are  bound  by  the  duties  we  owe  each  other,  as 
well  as  ourselves,  to  preserve  and  cultivate  a  cheerful 
spirit  and  disposition,  and  aside  from  levity  of  conversa- 


NATURE    REQUIRES    EXCITING    EXERCISE.  249 

tion,  or  action,  we  cannot  see  the  immorality,  or  impro- 
priety of  so  far  giving  way  to  the  dictates  of  nature  as 
to  carry  our  pleasantries  even  to  mirth,  let  our  ages,  or 
professions  be  what  they  may. 

Laughing  a  proper  and  healthful  exercise. — Man  is 
the  only  laughing  animal  which  the  whole  terrestrial 
creation  affords;  and  in  the  young,  the  indulgence  of 
this  natural  propensity,  in  proper  places  and  under  prop- 
er circumstances,  is  universally  approbated ;  youth  being 
considered  by  all,  as  the  appropriate  season  of  innocent 
merriment.  But  there  are  those  who  look  upon  the  ac- 
tion of  the  risible  muscles,  as  being  incompatible  with 
the  gravity  and  solemn  dignity  of  certain  ages  and  pro- 
fessions ;  and  therefore  believe  that  such,  ought  always 
to  suppress  their  lively  and  facetious  thoughts,  and  expres- 
sions, lest  they  should  excite  laughter  in  others,  or  give 
way  to  it  themselves. 

Now  we  have  no  desire  that  any  one  should  do  vio- 
lence to  his  conscience  in  this  respect,  but  while,  aside 
from  improper  levity,  we  cannot  imagine  from  what 
source  moral  evil  would  come  in  consequence  of  the 
exercise  of  the  muscles  of  risibility  in  any  human  being 
whatever,  it  is  certain,  that  the  act  of  laughter,  conduces 
to  the  health  of  the  system,  by  the  motion  it  gives  to 
certain  muscles,  as  well  as  by  the  attendant  relaxation 
of  the  mind  ;  and  therefore  as  a  mere  secular  action,  is 
a  very  proper  exercise  for  people  of  studious  and  sed- 
entary habits. 

The  muscles  concerned  in  moderate  laughter  are 
chiefly  the  diaphragm,  and  those  between  the  ribs ;  but 
when  the  action  becomes  violent,  those  of  the  back  and 
chest  are  thrown  into  motion,  and  the  whole  frame  is 
shaken ; — the  lungs  being  at  the  same  time  alternately 
filled  with,  and  exhausted  of  air,  by  rapid  muscular  ac- 
tions, which  sometimes  amount  nearly  to  convulsions, 
thus  calling  into  contractile  motion,  all  the  muscles  of 
the  trunk,  and  agitating  the  entire  assemblage  of  the  vis- 
ceral organs,  thus,  perhaps,  detaching  any  adhesions  that 
might  be  incipient  in  these  parts,  and  at  any  rate,  giving 
vigor  to  the  actions  of  the  pipes,  and  strainers,  the  secre- 
ting and  the  absorbing  surfaces,  the  functions  of  which  are 


250  MENTAL    AND    PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

so  necessary,  that  not  only  health,  but  even  life  itself 
depends  upon  them. 

"  Laughter,"  says  Dr.  Willich,  "is  sometimes  the  effect 
of  joy  ;  but  it  frequently  arises  from  a  sudden  disappoint- 
ment of  the  mind,  when  directed  to  an  object,  which, 
instead  of  being  serious,  and  important,  terminates  unex- 
pectedly, in  insignificance.  Within  the  bounds  of  mode- 
ration, laughter  is  a  salutary  emotion ;  for,  as  a  deep 
inspiration  of  air  takes  place,  which  is  succeeded  by  a 
short,  and  frequently  repeated  expiration,  the  lungs  are 
filled  with  a  great  quantity  of  blood,  and  gradually  emp- 
tied, so  that  its  circulation  through  the  lungs  is  thus  bene- 
ficially promoted.  It  manifests  a  similar  effect  on  the 
organs  of  digestion.  Pains  in  the  stomach,  colics,  and 
several  other  complaints  that  could  not  be  relieved  by 
other  means,  have  been  frequently  removed  by  this.  In 
many  cases  where  it  is  purposely  raised,  laughter  is  of 
excellent  service,  as  a  remedy  which  agitates  and  enli- 
vens the  whole  frame.  Experience  also  furnishes  us 
with  many  remarkable  instances,  where  obstinate  ulcers 
of  the  lungs,  or  liver,  which  had  resisted  every  effort  of 
medicine,  were  happily  opened  and  cured  by  a  fit  of 
laughter  artificially  excited." 

In  cases,  however,  where  the  conscience  is  against  the 
practice  of  laughing,  little  good  may  be  expected 
from  it. 


DIFFERENT    KINDS    OF    MUSCULAR    EXERCISE. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  amount  of  exercise 
which  men  require,  depending  very  much  upon  consti- 
tution and  habit.  There  is  also  a  selection  to  be  made 
with  respect  to  adaptation  to  the  mind,  since  what  would 
prove  exhilarating  to  some,  might  be  mere  drudgery  to 
others.  Those  who  require  muscular  recreation,  ought 
therefore  to  select  such  as  combine  excitement  with 
convenience  ;  the  same  being  adapted,  with  respect  to 
its  greater  or  less  violence,  to  the  constitution  and  habits 
of  the  individual. 


FIELD    SPORTS.  251 


MANUAL    LABOR. 

In  schools  for  manual  labor,  there  may  be  introduced 
employments  which  to  some,  will  in  a  degree  answer 
the  purposes  required.  But  these  must  be  varied,  so  as 
to  give  motion  to  the  muscles  in  different  parts  of  the 
body.  Plaining,  sawing,  turning  the  lathe,  turning  the 
auger,  and  chopping  with  the  axe,  will  in  succession, 
bring  all  the  voluntary  muscles  into  play.  But  as  we 
have  seen,  unless  the  subject  can  contrive  to  make  these 
employments  exciting  to  the  mind,  very  little  advantage 
will  be  gained  from  them.  If  therefore  the  student  con- 
fines himself  to  such  kinds  of  exercise,  he  must  under- 
take the  construction  of  some  article  of  furniture,  re- 
quiring the  products  of  these  different  branches  of  labor  ; 
and  if  several  will  undertake  the  construction  of  the  same 
article,  there  will  be  produced  some  degree  of  excite- 
ment during  the  progress  of  the  work,  by  a  comparison 
of  the  different  specimens  produced.  But  if  the  labor 
is  not  sufficiently  active  to  induce  general  and  profuse 
perspiration,  especially  in  the  warm  season,  little  good  to 
the  debilitated  student  may  be  expected  from  it. 


SCIENTIFIC    EXCURSIONS. 

Excursions  into  the  country  on  foot,  especially  among 
woods  and  mountains,  in  search  of  insects,  or  Botanical 
and  Mineralogical  specimens,  to  those  who  are  fond  of 
natural  history,  produce  considerable  energy  of  feeling 
and  action  ;  and  during  the  warm  season,  for  those  who 
live  in  cities  especially,  is  a  far  more  rational  and  health- 
ful mode  of  spending  a  few  weeks,  than  the  more  com- 
mon one  of  lounging  about  watering  places,  where  it  is 
often  found  that  there  are  neither  wholesome  lodging, 
wholesome  excitement,  nor  wholesome  exercise. 


FIELD    SPORTS. 

Sporting  with  the  dog  and  gun,  and  especially  with  a 
well  trained  pointer,  affords  to  those  who  have  learned 
to  "  shoot  on  the  wing,"  the  most  exciting  and  health- 


252       MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

ful  exercise.  In  whatever  light  people  who  are  ignor- 
ant of  this  mode  of  employing  their  mind,  and  muscles, 
may  look  upon  those  men  who  are  exhilarated  by  such 
"  boyish  sports,"  it  is  certain  that  those  who  have  enjoy- 
ed the  fine  flow  of  spirits  which  such  occasions  excite, 
and  especially  the  invigorating  consequences  thus  produ- 
ced on  the  animal  system,  are  seldom  induced  to  think 
that  such  exercise  is  incompatible  with  the  gravity  of 
age,  or  office  ;  but  more  generally  continue  the  practice, 
so  long  as  the  eye  sight  enables  them  to  see  the  game 
distinctly. 

To  the  lovers  of  the  dog  and  gun,  partridge,  quail,  and 
woodcock  shooting,  are  considered  the  most  exciting, 
and  healthful  of  all  muscular  exercises  ;  but  it  is  too  vi- 
olent for  those  whose  systems  are  not  prepared  to  un- 
dergo considerable  fatigue,  though  the  literary  dyspep- 
tic will  find  after  a  few  experiments,  that  he  can  traverse 
woods,  bogs,  and  mountains,  with  a  degree  of  facility 
and  pleasure,  which  will  be  a  matter  of  surprise  to  him- 
self. Students  of  athletic  constitutions,  are  sometimes 
compelled  to  employ  exercise  of  proportionate  violence  ; 
the  ordinary  routine  of  riding,  sawing  wood,  &c.,  being 
insufficient  to  produce  the  effects  required,  even  though 
they  might  excite  the  brain. 

A  gentleman  well  known  to  the  author,  who  left  an 
active,  for  a  sedentary  and  mental  employment,  found 
that  sawing  and  splitting  all  the  wood  for  his  family,  did 
very  little  towards  preventing  his  nervous,  from  predom- 
inating over  his  muscular  system.  The  effect  of  this  ex- 
ercise was  to  fatigue  the  muscles  of  his  arms  and  fingers, 
so  that  it  was  often  difficult  for  him  to  resume  his  pen 
on  this  account.  He  found  also,  that  tiring  the  muscles 
did  nothing  towards  relieving  the  mind  ;  nor  was  there 
sufficient  excitement  in  the  employment,  or  motive  in 
the  end  to  be  accomplished,  to  induce  its  continuance 
until  perspiration  ensued.  Finding  therefore,  that  there 
would  soon  be  an  absolute  necessity  for  his  either  relin- 
quishing the  profession  he  had  adopted,  or  of  seeking 
some  more  exciting  and  athletic  exercise,  he  returned  to 
his  boyish  practices,  and  partook  himself  to  woodcock 
and  partridge  shooting,  as  the  most  convenient,  and  at 
the  same  time,  as  that  kind  of  recreation  from  which 


FIELD    SPORTS, 

there  was  the  greatest  hope  of  relief.  In  this  he  has  not 
been  disappointed,  but  has  been  able  to  perform  much 
more  mental  labor  than  when  he  spent  the  whole  day 
over  his  writing  desk.  Two  hours  per  day,  from  five  to 
seven,  P.  M.  in  the  summer  season,  spent  in  this  manner, 
with  a  good  pointer,  will  give  all  the  exercise  which  mid- 
dle aged  men,  of  ordinary  constitutions,  require.  Dur- 
ing this  time,  the  exhilaration  of  the  mind,  and  the  mo- 
tions of  the  muscles,  are  constant ;  not  a  little  of  the  in- 
terest arising  from  the  wonderful  instinct  and  sagacity, 
which  a  well  bred  pointer  dog  exhibits  in  the  field,  and 
which  the  lover  of  rural  sports,  however  often  he  has  wit- 
nessed it,  never  sees  with  indifference.  The  admirer  of 
nature,  who  for  the  first  time  beholds  the  phenomena 
which  these  animals  exhibit,  when  "  beating  the  field," 
and  "  standing  at  a  point,"  will  not  only  be  intensely  in- 
terested, but  often  struck  with  astonishment  at  what  he 
sees.  The  dog  runs  backwards  and  forwards,  a  little 
before  his  master,  with  his  nose  elevated  above  the  grass 
or  bushes,  until  he  scents  the  bird,  (which  is  always  on 
the  ground,)  when  he  walks  slowly,  and  carefully,  to 
within  a  rod  or  two  of  it,  and  then  stands  perfectly  still, 
with  his  nose  pointing  to  the  exact  spot  where  the  game 
lies.  The  sportsman  proceeding  to  the  spot,  sends  the 
dog  forward  to  "flush"  the  bird,  and  shoots  it  as  it  flies, 
the  dog  again  standing  until  the  game  falls,  when  he 
brings,  and  lays  it  at  his  master's  feet. 

In  these  dogs  the  pointing  is  a  natural  property,  or  per- 
haps an  acquired  instinct,  and  may  be  seen  in  young  an- 
imals of  good  blood,  without  the  least  training.  The 
training  therefore,  does  not  consist  in  learning  the  animal 
to  point,  but  only  to  obey  the  commands  of  his  master, 
with  respect  to  the  moment  of  flushing  the  game,  of 
bringing  it,  and  of  keeping  within  a  certain  distance  from 
him,  &c. 

And  now  who  ca*n  account  for  the  reason  why  this 
extraordinary  property  was  conferred  on  this  animal,  un- 
less it  was  intended  by  the  Giver  to  be  employed  by 
man  in  the  manner  \ve  have  described  ;  for  in  no  other 
respect  can  it  be  of  the  least  use  to  the  dog  or  his  mas- 
ten  We  cannot  but  believe  therefore,  that  there  was 
22 


254  MENTAL   AND   PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

design  in  this  peculiar  endowment,  and  that  it  was  in- 
tended to  be  made  useful  to  man. 

It  is  true  that  there  are  objections  to  this  kind  of  sport. 
To  those  situated  in  large  towns,  it  would  perhaps  be 
nearly  impracticable  as  a  daily  exercise ;  and  besides, 
there  is,  at  least,  a  semblance  of  cruelty  in  it.  With  re- 
spect to  the  latter  however,  the  conscience  may  be  great- 
ly relieved  by  adhering  to  two  rules,  which  true  sports- 
men never  violate.  The  first  is,  never  to  shoot  at  any 
bird  which  is  not  fit  for  the  table  ;  and  the  second,  never 
to  shoot  at  any  bird  that  is  fit  for  the  table,  unless  it  be 
on  the  wing.  By  adopting  these  rules,  the  beginner  will 
have  to  account  chiefly  for  motives,  and  intentions,  since 
he  will  seldom  be  troubled  by  seeing  his  bird  fall.  Still, 
however,  the  excitement  does  not  entirely  fail  from  want 
of  success  ;  and  if  the  tyro  will  persevere  for  a  few  days, 
or  until  he  has  "  bagged"  a  few  "  brace"  of  birds,  he 
will  then  find  his  conscience  perfectly  at  rest  on  the  sub- 
ject of  field  sports,  both  with  regard  to  intentions,  and 
overt  acts.  Sir  Walter  Scott  was  enabled  to  continue 
his  great  mental  efforts  by  the  use  of  this  kind  of  exer- 
cise. 


ANGLING. 

Those  who  do  not  require  the  violent  exercise  insep- 
arable from  sporting  with  the  dog  and  gun,  may  perhaps 
find  as  interesting  a  recreation  in  angling ;  which  ever 
since  the  days  of  that  father  of  "brook  sports,"  Izaak 
Walton,  has  never  wanted  most  honorable  patrons. 
And  it  must  be  confessed,  that  on  several  accounts  this 
is  hardly  excelled  by  any  other  recreative  employment. 
Indeed,  we  have  the  pleasure  of  knowing  many  a  Trout- 
fisher,  whose  present  enjoyments  are  greatly  heightened 
by  this  exercise,  and  whose  useful  lives  will  undoubted- 
ly be  prolonged  by  its  continuance. 

One  of  these,  a  gentleman  who  has  retired  from  an 
active  employment,  often  expresses  his  thankfulness  that 
he  is  attached  to  this  recreation,  considering  it,  indepen- 
dently of  the  pleasure  it  confers,  as  one  of  the  most  effi- 
cient causes  of  the  fine  state  of  health  which  he  enjoys.  > 


ANGLING.  255 

To  those  who  have  no  feeling  on  this  subject,  angling 
might  be  supposed  to  want  that  kind  of  excitement, 
which  we  have  described  as  necessary  to  healthful  ex- 
ercise. But  if  such  an  one  will  only  just  touch  on  the 
subject,  in  presence  of  a  "  lover  of  the  rod,"  he  will  find 
his  mistake  ;  for  there  is  certainly  not  a  more  enthusias- 
tic body  of  men  on  the  subject  of  sportive  recreations, 
or  rather  recreation,  than  the  anglers ;  and  to  these 
therefore  it  presents  a  source  of  all  the  mental  exhilara- 
tion, both  as  a  conservative,  and  curative  means,  which 
could  be  desired. 

But  the  uninitiated,  and  the  ignorant,  are  ready  to  in- 
quire, "  From  what  source  can  this  interest,  this  excite- 
ment, arise  ?"  To  which  inquiry  we  will  reply,  for  we 
have  more  than  once  been  witness  to  the  intense  feeling 
which  men  of  gravity,  and  of  sound  minds,  exhibit  on 
such  occasions. 

In  the  first  place  then,  an  early  breakfast,  and  a  ride 
of  several  miles  on  a  May  morning,  with  the  expectation 
of  a  fine  day,  (that  is,  a  little  cloudy,)  and  fine  luck,  are 
preliminaries  by  no  means  wanting  in  interest. 

When  arrived  at  the  trout-brook,  there  is  the  prepar- 
ation of  inserting  the  joints  of  the  poles,  of  fixing  the 
lines,  and  eeeing  to  the  bait,  during  which  nothing  else 
can  be  thought  of.  JBut  now  the  chief  source  of  mental 
excitement  begins. 

The  hook  all  baited,  and  ready,  is  thrown  into  the  wa- 
ter, and  perhaps  a  bite  is  instantly  felt ;  or  as  is  some- 
times the  case,  possibly  the  Trout  may  jump  out  of  the 
water  and  seize  it ;  and  who  could  avoid  feeling  at  such 
a  beginningl  What  cold  heart  could  remain  unmoved 
with  such  a  crown  of  success  ?  But  if  no  fish  jumps  up 
to  welcome  the  bait ;  if  no  bite,  not  even  a  nibble  is  felt, 
still  the  excitement  does  not  fail,  for  what  is  not  realized, 
is  every  instant  expected,  and  therefore  from  the  very 
nature  of  the  case,  the  mind  is  constantly  occupied,  the 
brain  continually  excited,  and  nothing  but  the  expected 
bite  can  be  thought  of. 

And  then,  after  an  early  breakfast,  a  ride  and  a  walk 
along  the  limpid,  gurgling  stream,  with  the  mind  intense- 
ly fixed  on  an  object, — then  comes  on  an  animal  sensa- 
tion, which  after  a  while  predominates  over  the  mental 


256  MEPTTAL   AND   PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

feelings  of  the  keenest, — the  most  ardent  sportsman,  and 
the  cold  dinner  is  taken  with  a  keenness  of  appetite,  and 
a  degree  of  enjoyment,  known  only  to  those  whose  gas- 
tric organs  have  been  prepared  by  such  means. 

After  the  day's  sport  is  over,  still  the  interest  does  not 
cease,  for  the  parties  recount  to  each  other,  on  the  way 
home,  the  pleasures,  and  circumstances  of  the  day. 
And  finally  after  such  a  day  of  exercise,  both  of  mind 
and  body,  there  follows  such  a  night  of  repose,  as  the 
stayer-at-home  cannot  appreciate, — and  such  a  breakfast 
in  the  morning  as  princes  seldom  enjoy. 


RIDING. 

"  Of  all  exercises,"  says  Dr.  Ticknor,  "  riding  is  most 
conducive  to  health,  and  to  vigor  of  the  constitution,  but 
as  a  good  thing  may  bo  improperly^  or  imprudently  usedf 
so  riding  sometimes  produces  an  effect  contrary  to  what 
is  intended.  Those  who  are  not  accustomed  to  riding 
are  most  apt  to  suffer — the  pleasure,  and  exhilaration 
being  so  great,  that  fatigue  or  exhaustion  are  induced 
when  they  are  least  expected.  In  cold  weather,  people 
unused  to  carriage  exercise  are  apt  to  think  the  same 
quantity  of  clothing  necessary  in  walking,  will  be  an 
adequate  protection  when  riding.  Often,  a  person  will 
not  experience  a  sensation  of  cold,  he  will  not  be  aware 
that  his  body  is  becoming  chilled,  till  he  alights  from  his 
carriage,  or  till  he  approaches  the  fire,  when  he  becomes 
fully  sensible  that  his  ride  has  been  too  protracted. 
Those  who  are  in  good  health  do  not  often  experience  any 
more  than  a  temporary  inconvenience  from  this  cause, 
but  in  the  delicate  it  is  sufficient  to  be  followed  by  a  seri- 
ous illness.  In  summer  a  drive  towards  nightfall  is  truly 
delicious,  and  is  believed  to  be  conducive  to  heajth — • 
and  so,  indeed,  it  is,  with  due  precaution — but  at  such 
times  females  are  generally  thinly  clad,  and  a  thin  dress 
affords  little  protection  from  the  damp,  and  chilly  air  of 
an  evening." 

"  There  seems,  in  the  present  age,  a  wonderful  pro- 
pensity to  be  hurried  through  the  world ;  not  only  is  it 
convenient  for  the  man  of  business  to  be  transported  by 


RIDING.  257 

steam  at  the  rate  of  from  fifteen  to  fifty  miles  an  hour' 
but  there  is  no  pleasure  in  driving  ones' 'own  hired' 
horse  at  a  pace  of  less  than  ten  miles  in  the  same  space 
of  time.  Being  thus  hurried  away,  Pegasus-like,  a  just 
equivalent  to  sitting  in  the  open  air  when  the  wind  blows, 
in  sailor's  phrase,  a  '  stiff  breeze/  and  to  do  this  at  sun- 
set would  be  thought  the  very  extreme  of  imprudence. 
There  can  be  no  objection  to  any  man's  riding  with  all 
the  speed  his  horse  can  make  ;  but  it  were  wisdom  to 
shield  himself  against  a  breeze  of  his  own  raising." 

"  Equitation,  or  riding  on  horse  back,  is  a  different 
exercise  from  the  preceding ;  and  fast  riding  is  not  only 
active  exercise,  but  severe  labor.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  noble,  and  manly,  and  healthful  exercises  that  can 
be  imagined  ;  and  as  it  formed  a  part  of  the  education  of 
the  Spanish  youth,  so  ought  it  to  be  made  a  part  of  the 
education  of  the  young  of  both  sexes,  in  our  country. 
Riding  on  horseback,  exercises  every  muscle,  and  every 
organ  in  the  body ;  and  causes  the  blood  to  circulate  so 
freely  that  in  cold  weather  this  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
fortable ways  in  which  a  person  can  travel,  provided  he 
can  bear  the  exercise  without  fatigue.  This  may  seem 
paradoxical  to  those  who  never  have  made  the  experi- 
ment ;  but  the  evidence  of  those  who  have  tested  it  for 
several  successive  years,  in  all  weathers,  and  at  all  sea- 
sons, has  established  the  fact  to  my  own  satisfaction,  that 
at  the  pace  of  seven  or  eight  miles  an  hour,  no  person 
would  feel  cold  in  unusually  severe  winter  weather." — 
Philosophy  of  Living,  by  Caleb  Ticknor,  A.  M.,  M.  D. 
Harper's  Family  Library,  No.  77,  p.  202. 

We  will  add  to  the  foregoing  judicious  remarks  of  Dr. 
Ticknor,  that  riding  on  horseback,  with  agreeable  com- 
pany, and  on  a  spirited,  well  trained  animal,  does  afford 
exercise,  at  once  agreeable,  exhilarating,  and  manly.  It 
also  has  the  advantage  of  bringing  all  the  principal  mus- 
cles into  play,  and  of  shaking  the  viscera  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  give  a  vigorous  action  to  the  pipes,  and  strain- 
ers  throughout  the  system,  and  perhaps  to  detach  any 
little  adhesions  that  might  be  taking  place  among  them. 

A  journey  on  horseback,  for  a  nervous  invalid,  is  un- 
doubtedly one  of  the  best  means  of  restoration,  not  how- 
ever, merely  on  account  of  the  muscular  exercise,  or 
22* 


258        MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

the  wholesome  air,  but  because  there  is  a  constant  suc- 
cession of  new  and  exciting  objects,  which  as  constant- 
ly exercises  the  mind,  and  without  requiring  so  much  at- 
tention as  to  at  any  time  create  mental  fatigue.  Such  a 
degree  of  mental  excitement,  with  the  muscular  exer- 
cise, and  pure  atmosphere  of  the  country,  undoubtedly 
conspire  to  form  a  train  of  invigorating  means  hardly  to 
be  expected  from  any  which  can  be  employed  at  home. 

It  is  entirely  in  consequence  of  the  action  of  the  brain 
thus  excited,  or  the  employment  of  the  mind,  by  the  suc- 
cession of  new  objects,  that  a  journey  produces  such  dif- 
ferent results  on  the  health  of  the  invalid,  from  that  to  be 
obtained  by  the  employment  of  the  same  amount  of  the 
same  kind  of  exercise  at  one  place.  The  fact  itself,  is 
well  known,  otherwise  why  do  physicians  order  their 
patients  to  take  journeys  far  from  home,  when  with  re- 
spect to  the  comforts  and  habits  of.  life,  they  could  be 
much  better  provided  for  there,  than  abroad.  Why  not 
then,  ride  thirty  or  forty  miles  a  day,  one  way,  or  anoth- 
er, and  sleep  at  home,  to  which  every  invalid  is  attach- 
ed, and  to  most  of  whom  the  leaving  of  their  beds,  rooms, 
and  families,  is  such  a  trial  as  is  often  not  easily  to  be 
overcome.  From  all  we  have  said  of  the  connection 
which  exists  between  the  brain  and  muscles,  the  reason 
is  obvious  why  little  or  no  improvement  may  be  expect- 
ed from  such  exercise.  The  patient  expects  nothing 
new — he  has  already  seen  over  and  again  all  that  he  ex- 
pects to  see  during  his  ride  :  he  therefore  begins  his  dai- 
ly task  without  excitement,  and  going  through  it  without 
interest,  arrives  at  the  place  whence  he  started,  fatigued 
in  body  and  mind,  and  discouraged,  not  only  because  he 
finds  no  improvement,  but  because  he  dreads  the  very 
idea  of  having  to  perform  the  same  task  on  the  morrow. 

On  the  contrary,  during  a  journey,  there  is  a  constant 
change  of  scenery,  or  of  objects,  or  of  persons,  which  is 
just  sufficient  to  keep  the  mind  in  gentle  and  salubrious 
excitement,  and  which  acting  through  the  brain,  sup- 
plies the  muscular  system  with  the  requisite  degree  of 
nervous  power,  and  thus  the  two  systems,  (the  muscular 
and  nervous,)  are  kept  in  a  state  of  pleasant  and  healthy 
equilibrium,  which  conspires  gradually  to  bring  both  into 
a  condition  of  firmness  and  health.  The  patient,  after 


RIDING.  259 

such  a  day's  journey,  feels  far  less  fatigue  than  when  his 
exercise  is  without  excitement,  and  he  becomes  satisfied 
that  the  means  he  is  employing  answers  the  purpose  in- 
tended, and  therefore,  instead  of  being  discouraged,  he 
is  filled  with  the  hope  of  a  final,  and  speedy  recovery. 

A  highly  intelligent  female  invalid,  whose  circumstan- 
ces allowed  her  to  select  the  best  means  of  improving 
her  health  ;  employed  for  a  considerable  time,  daily  ex- 
ercise, either  on  horseback,  or  in  an  open  carriage,  in  the 
form  of  little  excursions  from  her  residence.  From  this 
method  however,  and  for  the  reasons  above  stated,  she 
obtained  little  else  than  fatigue,  listlessness,  and  discour- 
agement. Having  relinquished  it,  therefore,  for  a  jour- 
ney through  a  fine  country,  at  a  good  season  of  the  year, 
she  returned  so  much  improved,  as  to  astonish  her  friends, 
as  well  as  herself,  that  such  a  change  could  have  been 
effected  in  so  short  a  period  :  and  nearly  every  reader 
will  no  doubt  remember  similar  cases,  which  have  come 
within  his  own  knowledge. 

Exciting  exercise  absolutely  necessary  to  the  studious. — 
And  now,  in  closing  this  part  of  our  subject,  we  cannot 
but  desire  to  impress  it  upon  the  minds  of  those  into 
whose  hands  this  volume  may  fall,  and  who  are  destined 
to  spend  their  lives  in  literary  pursuits,  or  in  clerical  la- 
bors, that  an  uninterrupted,  and  long  continued  course 
of  study,  or  of  ministerial  duties,  without  exciting  relax- 
ation, is  from  the  very  organization  of  our  systems,  in 
most  cases,  absolutely  impossible.  The  kind  of  exercise 
must  of  course  depend  on  the  choice,  or  taste,  or  muscu- 
lar powers  of  the  individual,  only  to  answer  any  good 
purpose,  as  a  restorative  means,  it  must  be  exciting  to 
the  brain,  and  if  possible,  be  repeated  every  day,  or  at 
least  every  two  or  three  days,  until  the  equilibrium  of  the 
system  is  restored,  and  when  this  is  done,  must  be  con- 
tinued habitually  in  order  to  insure  a  permanency  of 
good  health. 

The  above  considerations  and  remarks,  with  respect 
to  exercise  in  adults,  although  they  do  not  apply  imme- 
diately to  youth,  for  whose  instruction  this  work  is  chief- 
ly intended,  still  it  is  hoped  will  not  be  deemed  entirely 
out  of  place,  since  it  is  highly  important  that  the  rising 


260  MENTAL    AND    PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

generation  should  possess  proper  conceptions  with  re- 
spect to  the  arduous  duties  of  the  clerical  office,  and  al- 
so that  our  young  men,  who  are  destined  to  follow  the 
pursuits  of  science,  or  literature,  should  at  the  com- 
mencement, know  the  importance  of  habitually  using  so 
much  corporeal  exercise,  as  to  prevent  their  falling  into 
that  nervous  and  debilitated  condition,  under  which  but 
too  many  of  their  brethren  are  now  laboring. 

Sir  Walter  Scott. — Sir  Walter  Scott,  who  produced, 
in  the  course  of  little  more  than  twenty-five  years,  seven- 
ty-four volumes  of  original  romances,  besides  histories, 
poems,  biographies,  critiques  and  dissertations  so  numer- 
ous, that  so  far  as  we  know,  their  number  has  not  been 
computed,  and  who  at  the  same  period  employed  many 
hours  every  day  in  other  mental  labors,  still  found  time 
to  take  a  great  deal  of  amusing  muscular  exercise.  Be- 
sides his  dogs  and  gun,  of  which,  being  a  capital  shot,  he 
was  exceedingly  fond,  and  with  which  he  exercised  him- 
self with  all  the  keenness  and  ardor  of  a  first  rate 
sportsman,  he  also,  nearly  every  day  in  the  season,  did 
something  in  the  practice  of  cultivation,  never  taking  a 
walk  about  his  grounds  without  a  weeding,  or  pruning 
hook  in  his  hand,  thus  always,  even  when  most  at  leis- 
ure, placing  before  himself  some  object  of  amusement, 
or  motive  of  action. 

It  is  well  known,  that  for  a  long  time  there  was  a  mys- 
tery with  respect  to  the  author  of  the  Waverly  Novels, 
and  it  now  appears  that  the  apparently  constant  occu- 
pation of  Scott,  as  clerk  of  the  Sessions,  and  in  other 
employments,  was  considered  as  a  sufficient  reason, 
why  it  was  not  possible  that  he  could  have  been  the  au- 
thor. "  In  order  to  thicken  this  mystification"  says  one 
of  his  biographers,"  Scott,  instead  of  being  always  at  his 
writing  desk,  as  might  have  have  been  expected  in  so  vo- 
luminous an  author,  seemed  through  the  whole  day  and 
evening,  to  have  his  time  perfectly  at  command,  for  the 
routine  either  of  business  or  amusement."  "Three 
hours  per  diem'9  as  he  often  observed,  "  are  quite  enough 
for  literary  labor,  if  only  one's  attention  is  kept  so  long 
undistracted  ;  and  the  best  time  for  this,  is  in  the  morn- 
ing when  other  people  are  asleep." 


RIDING.  261 

In  conformity  to  this  practice,  Sir  Walter  Scott  used 
to  produce  twenty-four  pages  of  quarto  manuscript  be- 
tween the  time  of  rising,  and  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
when  the  court  opened,  and  at  which  time  his  office  re- 
quired his  presence.  This  was  closely  written,  in  a 
small  hand,  and  ready  for  the  press.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  no  authorities  were  consulted  during  this 
time,  and  that  he  previously  had  the  matter  all  ready  in 
his  mind,  otherwise  such  performances,  if  continued  for 
any  length  of  time,  must  be  considered  as  little  less  than 
miraculous. 

We  have  cited  Scott,  to  show  the  necessity,  and  the 
practice  of  active  amusements  in  a  man  of  letters,  be- 
cause his  writings  are  generally  known,  and  because  it 
might  be  supposed  by  some,  that  the  great  number  of 
his  productions,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  they  fol- 
lowed each  other,  precluded  the  possibility  of  his  spend- 
ing any  considerable  portion  of  time  in  bodily  exercise, 
whereas  we  see,  that  this  was,  at  least  for  a  time,  the 
very  means  by  which  he  was  enabled  to  perform  such 
extraordinary  mental  efforts.  Nor  was  Scott  an  ex- 
ception in  this  respect  to  the  practice  of  other  British 
authors,  and  especially  those  of  Scotland,  who,  what- 
ever their  ages,  or  offices  may  be,  are  in  the  habit  of 
making  play  a  part  of  their  daily  duties. 

But  notwithstanding  Scott  understood  so  well  the 
principles  which  ought  to  govern  students  with  respect 
to  muscular  exercise,  and  for  a  long  time  reduced  them 
to  practice,  still  his  pecuniary  embarrassments  forced 
him  to  such  unparalleled  mental  exertions,  as  finally  to 
affect  the  cerebral  and  nervous  functions  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  induce  a  morbid  condition  of  the  whole  system, 
from  which  he  never  recovered.  So  that  the  noble 
part  by  which  he  distinguished  the  age  iri  which  he  liv- 
ed, finally  became  the  instrument  by  which  he  was  des- 
tined to  perish. — A  striking  commentary  on  the  princi- 
ple, that  the  equilibrium  of  the  nervous,  and  muscular 
systems  cannot  be  deranged  with  impunity. 

It  has  been,  not  unaptly  observed,  by  more  than  one 
of  our  Trans- Atlantic  brethren,  on  visiting  this  country, 
and  noticing  our  manners  and  habits,  that  "  the  Ameri- 
cans are  very  complete  masters  of  the  art  of  working. 


262        MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

but  that  they  do  not  yet  understand  the  art  of playing'9 
This  is  undoubtedly  true,  the  newness  of  our  country, 
originally,  and  some  parts  of  it  at  the  present  time, 
making  it  necessary  for  all  classes  to  labor  more  or 
less  with  their  hands,  and  to  this  circumstance  the  pres- 
ent prosperity  and  vast  enterprize  of  our  nation  is  in  a 
great  measure  owing.  It  is  from  the  same  cause  also, 
that  as  a  nation,  we  have  acquired  the  almost  universal 
sentiment,  that  a  man  ought  to  labor  constantly,  and 
with  little,  or  no  relaxation,  so  long  as  he  is  able,  let  his 
occupation  be  what  it  may  ;  and  this  opinion  is  follow- 
ed by  a  practice  nearly  as  universal.  Now  so  far  as 
muscular  labor  is  concerned,  this  practice  is  not  incom- 
patible with  the  prospect  of  a  long  life  and  robust  health, 
and  therefore,  whether  followed  from  necessity,  or  for 
profit,  or  pleasure,  seldom  so  deranges  the  balance  be- 
tween the  muscular  and  nervous  systems  as  to  induce 
premature  evil  to  either.  But  if,  instead  of  depending 
upon  foreign  authors  for  our  literature  and  science — if 
we  are  to  look  to  the  pens  of  our  own  sons,  and  daugh- 
ters, for  books  of  instruction  for  the  rising  generation, 
and  for  even  but  a  small  portion  of  the  mental  food 
which  this  vast  republic  requires,  then  it  is  certain  that 
so  far  as  this  class  is  concerned,  the  sentiment  requiring 
perpetual  labor  must  be  changed,  for  as  we  have- abun- 
dantly shown,  the  Creator  did  not  form  man  for  inces- 
sant mental  labor. 


PHYSICAL   AND    MENTAL    EDUCATION    OF    YOUTH. 

The  proper  use  of  the  muscles  consists  in  their  alter- 
nate contraction  and  relaxation,  and  this  is  one  of  the 
most  imperious  laws  of  the  animal  economy.  If  the 
muscles  are  allowed  to  remain  in  a  state  of  relaxation 
for  any  considerable  time,  they  become  incapable  of  vig- 
orous contraction,  as  we  have  already  stated.  The 
cases  of  prisoners  long  confined  in  cells,  or  in  chains,  so 
that  they  could  not  use  their  Kmbs,  have  often  presented 
lamentable  illustrations  of  this  principle.  Such  persons, 
without  any  positive  disease,  become  unable  to  walk, 
or  even  to  stand  from  mere  debility  of  the  muscular  sys- 


EDUCATION    OP   YOUTH.  263 

tern.  The  deplorable  case  of  poor  Caspar  Hauser 
who  was  confined  from  his  infancy  in  a  small  dungeon, 
and  whose  story  is  every  where  known,  presented  a  still 
more  striking,  and  miserable  example  of  the  same  prin- 
ciple. 

On  the  contrary,  if  relaxation  gradually  destroys  the 
strength  of  the  muscles,  so  are  their  powers  most  rap- 
idly exhausted  by  continued  contraction.  This  indeed 
appears  to  be  impossible  for  any  considerable  length  of 
time.  To  hold  the  arm  in  a  horizontal  position  for  ten 
minutes,  even  without  any  weight  in  the  hand,  is  what 
no  one  can  do  without  pain.  To  stand  perfectly  still  on 
both  feet,  is  also  a  most  fatiguing  position,  because  in 
this  posture  the  muscles  of  the  limbs  are  under  continu- 
al tension.  Hence  it  is,  that  soldiers,  who  are  capable 
of  enduring  great  exertions  in  marching,  soon  become 
impatient  and  tired,  if  kept  beyond  a  certain  length  of 
time  in  the  line,  on  parade  ;  and  hence  also,  the  neces- 
sity that  the  drill  officer,  who  would  have  his  men  ap- 
pear well  on  parade,  should  often  employ  the  word 
"  rest"  in  its  military  sense,  it  being  impossible  for  them 
to  keep  the  line  in  the  attitude  of  soldiers,  more  than  a 
few  minutes  at  a  time. 

If  then  men,  and  soldiers  too,  are  incapable  from  their 
organization  of  avoiding  the  relaxation  of  their  muscles, 
how  much  more  difficult  it  must  be,  for  children  and 
youth,  whose  limbs  are  instinctively  in  perpetual  motion, 
to  restrain  themselves  from  this  natural  propensity. 
Rest,  to  these  young  creatures,  after  a  time,  undoubted- 
ly becomes  much  more  painful  than  any  degree  of  hun- 
ger, or  thirst  they  have  ever  felt ;  for  these  wants,  it 
would  be  considered  the  highest  cruelty  not  to  supply. 
But  the  child,  often,  as  every  parent  may  have  observ- 
ed, after  coming  out  of  school,  prefers  the  exercise  of 
his  muscles,  for  a  while,  to  the  gratification  of  his  hun- 
ger. 

Consequences  of  the  confined  position  of  Females  at 
School. — "  The  Principles  of  Physiology,  applied  to  the 
Preservation  of  Health,"  by  Dr.  Combe,  of  Edinburgh, 
contains  some  capital  remarks,  on  the  subject  of  muscu- 
lar action  in  youth,  and  which  are  undoubtedly  applica- 


264       MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

ble,  though  it  is  hoped,  only  in  a  limited  degree  to  our 
own  country. 

"  Although  contraction  and  relaxation,  says  the  author, 
or  in  other  words,  exercise  of  the  muscles,  which  sup- 
port the  trunk  of  the  body,  are  the  only  means,  which 
according  to  the  Creator's  laws,  are  conducive  to  muscu- 
lar development,  and  by  which  the  bodily  strength,  and 
vigor  can  be  secured.  Instead  of  promoting  such  ex- 
ercise however,  the  prevailing  system  of  female  educa- 
tion, places  the  muscles  of  the  trunk,  in  particular,  un- 
der the  worst  possible  circumstances,  and  renders  their 
exercise  nearly  impossible.  Left  to  its  own  weight,  the 
body  would  fall  to  the  ground,  in  obedience  to  the  or- 
dinary law  of  gravitation  ;  in  sitting  and  standing,  there- 
fore, as  well  as  in  walking,  the  position  is  preserved  on- 
ly by  active  muscular  exertion." 

"  But  if  we  confine  ourselves  to  one  attitude,  such  as 
that  of  sitting  erect  on  a  chair — or  what  is  still  worse, 
on  benches,  without  backs,  as  is  the  common  practice  in 
schools — it  is  obvious  that  we  place  the  muscles  which 
support  the  spine  and  trunk,  in  the  very  disadvanta- 
geous position  of  permanent,  instead  of  alternate  con- 
traction ;  which  we  have  seen  is  in  reality  more  fa- 
tiguing, and  debilitating  to  them  than  severe  labor." 

"  Girls  thus  restrained  daily,  for  many  successive 
hours,  invariably  suffer  : — being  deprived  of  the  sports, 
and  exercise  after  school  hours,  which  strengthen  the 
muscles  of  boys,  and  enable  them  to  withstand  the  op- 
pression. The  muscles  being  thus  enfeebled,  they  ei- 
ther lean  over  insensibly  to  one  side,  and  thus  contract 
curvature  of  the  spine  ;  or,  their  weakness  being  per- 
ceived, they  are  forthwith  cased  in  stiffer,  and  stronger 
stays — that  support  being  sought  for,  in  steel  and  whale- 
bone, which  Nature  intended  they  should  obtain  from 
the  bones  and  muscles  of  their  own  bodies." 

"  The  patient,  finding  the  maintainance  of  an  erect 
carriage,  (the  grand  object  for  which  all  the  suffering  is 
inflicted,)  thus  rendered  more  easy,  at  first  welcomes 
the  stays,  and  like  her  teacher,  fancies  them  highly  use- 
ful. Speedily,  however,  their  effects  show  them  to  be 
the  reverse  of  beneficial.  The  same  want  of  varied 
motion,  which  was  the  prime  cause  of  the  muscular 


EDUCATION    OF   YOUTH.  265 

weakness,  is  still  further  aggravated  by  the  tight  pres- 
sure of  the  stays  interrupting  the  play  of  the  muscles, 
and  rendering  them  in  a  few  months  more  powerless 
than  ever." 

"In  spite,  however,  of  the  weariness  and  mischief 
which  result  from  it,  the  same  system  is  persevered  in  ; 
and,  except  during  the  short  time  allotted  to  that  nomi- 
nal exercise,  the  formal  walk,  the  body  is  left  almost  as 
motionless  as  before,  the  lower  limbs  only  being  -called 
into  activity.  The  natural  consequences  of  this  treat- 
ment are  debility  of  the  body,  curvature  of  the  spine, 
impaired  digestion,  and  from  the  diminished  tone  of  all 
the  animal  and  vital  functions,  general  ill  health  : — and 
yet,  while  we  thus  set  Nature  and  her  laws  at  defiance, 
we  presume  to  express  surprise  at  the  prevalence  of  fe- 
male deformity  and  disease." 

In  the  "  Cyclopedia  of  Practical  Medicine,"  the  same 
subject  occupies  the  attention  of  several  writers,  and  suf- 
ficient proof  is  there  adduced  that  Dr.  Combe  has  not 
been  mistaken  in  his  apprehensions  with  respect  to  the 
consequences  of  the  course  of  physical  education  above 
described. 

Dr.  Forbes,  one  of  the  writers  above  referred  to,  says 
that  he  "  lately  visited  a  boarding  school  in  a  large  town, 
containing  forty  girls  ;  and  that  he  learned  on  close  and 
accurate  inquiry,  that  there  was  not  one  of  these  girls  who 
had  been  at  the  school  two  years,  (and  the  majority  had 
been  there  as  long,)  that  were  not  more  or  less  CROOKED  !" 

"  Our  patient,"  he  continues,  "  was  in  this  predica- 
ment ;  and  \ye  could  perceive,  (what  all  may  perceive 
who  meet  that  most  melancholy  of  all  processions — a 
boarding  school  of  young  ladies  in  their  walk,)  that  all 
her  companions  were  pallid,  sallow,  and  listless.  We 
can  assert,  on  the  same  authority  of  personal  observa- 
tion, and  on  an  extensive  scale,  that  scarcely  a  single 
girl,  (more  especially  of  the  middle  classes,)  that  has 
been  at  a  boarding  school  for  two  or  three  years,  returns 
home  with  unimpaired  health  ;  and  for  the  truth  of  this 
assertion,  we  may  appeal  to  every  candid  fattier,  whose 
daughters  have  been  placed  in  this  situation." 

In  the  same  work,  it  is  stated  by  Dr.  Barlow,  that  at 
least  in  some  boarding  schools,  it  is  the  practice  to  al- 
23 


266       MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

low  the  young  ladies  only  one  hour  of  exercise,  consist- 
ing of  a  slow  walk  arm  in  arm  on  the  high  road,  and  that 
even  this,  only  when  the  weather  is  fine, — while  their 
tasks  in  school  are  continued  nine  hours  ;  besides  which, 
they  are  occupied  three  and  a  half  hours  per  day,  in  op- 
tional studies,  or  in  works. 

Dr.  Barlow  further  remarks,  that  the  superintend- 
ents of  these  schools  are  generally  extremely  anxious 
about  the  welfare  and  health  of  their  pupils  ;  and  that  it 
is  through  ignorance  of  the  consequences,  that  such  a 
course  is  pursued. 

How  far  these  strictures  are  deserved  by  the  superin- 
tendents of  boarding  schools  in  this  country,  the  author 
does  not  pretend  to  judge.  It  is  however  well  known, 
and  acknowledged,  that  the  subject  of  popular  education 
in  this  country,  is  better  understood  than  it  is  in  Great 
Britain,  or  perhaps  in  any  part  of  Europe  ;  and  we  may 
therefore  perhaps  justly  infer,  without  reference  to  the 
facts,  that  at  least  some  of  the  pernicious  usages  still  re- 
tained in  their  schools,  no  longer  exist  here. 

It  is  however  believed  that  a  reference  to  the  facts 
will  show,  that  at  least  in  New  England,  the  boarding 
schools  to  a  considerable  extent,  are  in  a  measure  free 
from  deserving  censure  on  account  of  confining  their 
pupils  too  closely ;  though  we  have  no  doubt  that  less 
study  and  more  exercise,  taken  regularly,  would  be  high- 
ly advantageous  to  the  mental  progress,  and  certainly  to 
the  constitutional  firmness  of  the  pupils. 

Instead  of  so  many  successive  hours  being  devoted  to 
study  and  to  books,  the  employments  of  the  young  ought 
to  be  varied,  and  interrupted  by  proper  intervals  of 
cheerful  and  exhilarating  exercise ;  such  as  is  derived 
from  games  of  dexterity,  which  require  the  co-opera- 
tion, and  society  of  their  companions.  This  is  infinitely 
preferable  to  the  solemn  processions  which  are  so  often 
substituted  for  recreation,  and  which  are  rather  hurtful 
than  otherwise,  inasmuch  as  they  delude  parents  and 
teachers  into  the  notion  that  this  is  really  exercise  ; 
whereas  the  slow,  measured  step,  and  the  locked  arms, 
and  the  solemn  silence,  shows  that  there  is  not  a  single 
element  of  wholesome  recreation  in  such  a  procession. 

It  has  already  been  shown,  that  mental  cultivation 


EDUCATION    OF   YOUTH.  267 

cannot  be  carried  on  without  a  proper,  and  due  propor- 
tion of  corporeal  activity,  even  in  adults  ;  and  it  is  well 
known  that  youth  require  much  more  action  than  their 
parents,  in  order  that  the  several  functions  of  the  ani- 
mal fabric  may  be  properly  developed,  and  ultimately 
gain  their  most  perfect  condition.  And  who  had  not 
much  rather  see  his  child  return  home  from  school  with 
a  little  less  algebra,  and  a  good  stock  of  health,  than  to 
know  that  she  had  outdone  her  class  mates,  and  obtain- 
ed the  highest  prizes,  while  the  pallid  cheek,  and  the 
crooked,  emaciated  frame,  shows  that  this  has  been 
done  at  the  expense  of  her  health  i 

Boys  may  run  through  the  streets,  play  ball,  skate, 
snow-ball,  fish  and  hunt,  while  the  fate  of  the  poor  girls 
is  fixed,  and  bound  down  to  the  sedate,  and  measured 
walk,  and  this  only  for  a  short  distance,  and  at  stated 
times.  And  still  the  girls  require  full  as  much  exercise 
as  their  brothers.  It  is  true,  as  will  be  seen  in  another 
place,  that  the  dress  of  females  is  far  more  pernicious  in 
its  consequences,  than  that  of  the  males  ;  and  hence  in 
a  degree,  undoubtedly,  we  may  account  for  the  greater 
number  of  deaths  by  consumption  in  the  former,  than 
among  the  latter.  But  is  it  not  to  be  feared  that  in  ma- 
ny instances,  a  predisposition  to  consumption  is  acquired 
in  females  in  early  youth,  in  consequence  of  the  want  of 
those  wholesome  sports  which  the  boys  enjoy  ?  And  is 
it  not  the  duty  of  parents  and  teachers  to  look  to  this  sub- 
ject especially,  and  see  whether  there  is  not  a  prevailing 
error  in  this  respect  ? 

Remarks  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Dick..— The  Rev.  Dr.  Dick, 
in  his  excellent  work  on  Mental  Illumination,  has  some 
good  remarks  on  the  subject  of  school  exercises  for  the 

"  Pupils  of  every  description,"  says  he,  "  should  be 
daily  employed  in  bodily  exercises,  for  invigorating  their 
health  and  bodily  powers.  Every  school  should  have  a 
play  ground  for  this  purpose,  as  extensive  as  possible, 
and  furnished  with  gymnastic  apparatus  for  exercising 
the  muscular  activities  of  the  young  of  both  sexes.— 
Swings,  poles,  hoops,  see-saws,  pulleys,  balls,  and  similar 
articles,  should  be  furnished  for  enabling  them  to  engage 


268       MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

with  spirit  and  vigor  in  their  amusements.  In  walking, 
skipping,  running,  leaping  in  height,  length,  or  depth, 
swinging,  lifting,  carrying,  jumping  with  a  hoop  or  pole, 
they  will  not  only  find  sources  of  enjoyment — when  these 
exercises  are  properly  regulated,  to  prevent  danger  and 
contention — but  these  enjoyments  will  also  strengthen, 
and  develope  their  corporeal  powers.  All  imitations, 
however,  of  war  and  military  manoeuvres,  should  be 
generally  prohibited  ;  as  it  is  now  more  than  time  that  a 
martial  spirit  should  be  counteracted,  and  checked  in  the 
bud, — and  those  who  encourage  it  in  the  young,  need 
not  wonder  if  they  shall  ere  long,  behold  many  of  them 
rising  up  to  be  curses,  instead  of  benefactors  to  man- 
kind. They  might  likewise  be  occasionally  employed  in 
making  excursions,  in  company  with  their  teacher,  either 
along  the  sea  shore,  the  banks  of  rivers,  or  to  the  top  of 
a  hill,  for  the  purpose  of  surveying  the  works  of  nature 
and  art,  and  searching  for  minerals,  plants,  flowers  or 
insects,  to  augment  the  school  museum,  and  to  serve  as 
subjects  for  instruction." 

"  If  every  school  had  a  piece  of  ground  attached  to  it 
for  a  garden,  and  for  the  cultivation  of  fruit  trees,  pota- 
tos,  cabbages,  and  other  culinary  vegetables,  children 
of  both  sexes,  at  certain  hours,  might  be  set  to  dig,  to 
hoe,  to  prune,  to  plant,  to  sow,  to  arrange  the  beds  of 
flowers,  and  to  keep  every  portion  of  the  plot  in  neat- 
ness and  order." 

"  Such  exercises  would  not  only  be  healthful  and  ex- 
hilarating, but  might  be  of  great  utility  to  them  in  after 
life,  when  they  come  to  have  the  sole  management  of 
their  own  domestic  affairs.  They  might  also  be  encour- 
aged to  employ  some  of  their  leisure  hours,  in  construct- 
ing such  mechanical  contrivances  and  devices,  as  are 
most  congenial  to  their  taste."  0 

"If  instead  of  six  or  seven  hours  confinement  in  school, 
only  five  hours  at  most  were  devoted  to  books,  and  the 
remaining  hours  to  such  exercises  as  above  mentioned, 
their  progress  in  practical  knowledge,  so  far  from  being 
impeded,  might  be  promoted  to  a  much  greater  extent." 

"  Such  exercises  might  be  turned,  not  only  to  their 
physical  and  intellectual  advantage,  but  to  their  moral 
improvement.  When  young  people  are  engaged  in  their 


EDUCATION   OP   YOUTH.  269 

diversions,  or  in  excursions  along  with  their  teachers, 
their  peculiar  tastes,  tempers,  and  conduct  towards  each 
other,  are  openly  developed  ;  they  act  without  restraint ; 
they  appear  in  their  true  colors  ;  and  a  teacher  has  the 
best  opportunity  of  marking  the  dispositions  they  dis- 
play. He  can  therefore  apply  at  the  moment  those  en- 
couragements, and  admonitions,  and  those  Christian 
rules  and  maxims,  by  which  their  characters,  and  con- 
duct, may  be  moulded  into  the  image  of  Him,  *  who 
hath  set  us  an  example,  that  we  should  walk  in  his 
steps.' " 

"The  incidents,  and  the  atmospherical  phenomena 
which  may  occur  on  such  occasions,  will  also  supply 
materials  for  rational  observations,  and  reflections,  and 
for  directing  the  train  of  their  affections,  and  the  exer- 
cise of  their  moral  powers  ;  and  no  opportunity  of  this 
kind,  for  producing  useful  impressions  upon  the  young, 
should  be  lost  by  the  pious  and  intelligent  instructor." 

Every  reflecting  teacher  and  parent,  who  reads  the 
above  remarks,  will  see  in  them  all  that  humanity,  dis- 
cretion, and  judgment  which  every  where  distinguish 
the  pen  of  Dr.  Dick,  and  especially  when  he  speaks  of 
the  physical  and  moral  education  of  youth.  But  al- 
though several  of  the  exercises  he  has  mentioned,  are 
fit  for  young  ladies,  they  are  meant  to  apply  chiefly  to 
boys,  for  whose  use  there  seems  to  be  little  difficulty  in 
the  selection.  But  with  respect  to  the  girls,  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  a  distinction  must  be  made,  for  although  they 
perhaps,  require  as  much  action  as  the  boys,  it  ought 
generally  to  be  less  athletic  in  its  kind,  and  such  as  espe- 
cially to  give  motion  to  the  arms  and  muscles  of  the 
chest.  As  a  reason  for  selecting  exercise  of  this  sort, 
for  females,  we  will  only  recur  to  the  well  known  fact, 
already  mentioned,  that  they  are  more  liable  to  the  con- 
sumption of  the  lungs  than  males,  let  the  cause  be  what 
it  may.  Such  recreations  therefore,  as  give  motion  to 
the  pectoral  muscles, — as  open  and  expand  the  lungs 
and  chest,  and  give  strength  to  the  organs  of  respiration 
generally,  are  peculiarly  proper  for  females. 

23* 


270  MENTAL   AND   PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

CALLISTHENICS. 

The  regular  and  somewhat  scientific  gymnastics,  for- 
merly introduced  into  schools,  under  the  title  of  Callis- 
tJienic  exercises,  have,  we  believe,  had  their  day,  and 
gone  into  general  disuse.  Possibly  the  novelty  of  this 
method  was  its  chief  recommendation,  though  it  is  said 
that  some  were  injured  by  it,  either  from  the  unnatural 
positions  into  which  the  limbs  were  thrown,  or  by  the 
violence  of  the  motions. 

The  great  objection  to  this  mode  of  exercise,  howev- 
er, we  conceive  arises,  not  from  these  causes,  for  the  po- 
sitions, as  well  as  the  violence  of  the  motions  could  easi- 
ly be  regulated  according  to  the  condition,  or  strength  of 
the  pupil,  which  certainly  ought  to  be  the  case  in  every 
exercise.  The  objection  is  founded  on  other  grounds, 
and  the  reason  why  this  method  does  not  prevail,  is,  that 
it  does  not  answer  the  purposes  intended  ;  nor  will  any 
other  exercise,  which  has  no  motive  connected  with  it, 
and  therefore  does  not  interest  the  feelings,  and  excite 
the  brain. 

Mere  positions,  or  mere  muscular  contractions,  as  we 
have  abundantly  shown,  are  of  very  little  use,  especial- 
ly to  the  young.  During  inclement  weather,  when  the 
pupils  cannot  employ  the  more  exciting  means  of  health 
in  the  open  air,  throwing  the  hoop,  or  playing  at  battle- 
door,  may  very  properly  be  used  as  substitutes,  and  in 
which  some  take  considerable  interest.  But  throwing 
the  limbs  backwards  and  forwards,  or  up,  and  down,  or 
the  use  of  the  dumb  bell,  or  any  such  sort  of  action, 
without  an  object  in  view,  other  than  that  of  employing 
the  muscles,  ought  never  to  be  depended  upon  as  a 
means  of  preserving  the  health  of  students.  (See  more 
on  this  subject  at  the  end  of  the  volume.) 

ARCHERY. 

One  of  the  most  proper,  convenient,  modest,  grace- 
ful, and  healthful  athletic  recreations  for  females  is,  AR- 
CHERY. Every  female  school  establishment  should 
therefore  have  a  piece  of  ground  marked  off,  together 


ARCHERY.  271 

with  targets,  and  bows  and  arrows,  prepared  for  this 
pleasant  and  invigorating  diversion. 

This  exercise  is  peculiarly  advantageous,  and  proper 
for  females,  on  account  of  the  reason  already  given  why 
they  ought  to  employ  every  means  for  invigorating  the 
chest  in  early  life,  and  were  these  recreations  generally 
adopted,  we  have  no  doubt,  but  many  a  slender  one, 
who  would  otherwise  occupy  an  untimely  grave,  might 
long  be  preserved  to  herself  and  society. 

Nor  is  this  exercise  at  all  deficient,  when  properly  car- 
ried on,  in  that  excitement  which  gives  vigor  to  the 
muscles,  and  buoyancy  to  the  mind.  But  for  this  pur- 
pose there  must  be  preparations,  and  circumstances  at- 
tending it,  which  it  is  Accessary  to  describe. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  bow  and  arrow  was  an- 
ciently the  most  efficient  means  of  defence  among  civ- 
ilized men,  and  that  before,  and  even  after  the  inven- 
tion of  gun-powder,  it  was  the  chief  weapon  employed 
in  the  wars  of  Europe. 

In  England,  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  every  man  in 
the  kingdom  was  obliged  by  law  to  have  in  his  house  a 
good  bow,  and  three  arrows.  Charles  II.  was  an  arch- 
er himself,  and  once  knighted  a  man  for  having  beat  Sir 
Wm.  Wood,  a  famous  bow-man,  in  a  game  of  shooting. 
Such  was  the  love  of  this  sport  in  England,  that  particu- 
lar spots  of  ground  were  appropriated  to  the  archers, 
by  the  law  of  the  land,  but  these  being  gradually  en- 
croached upon,  by  tenements  and  gardens,  the  people 
assembled,  and  without  authority,  cleared  and  levelled 
the  grounds  without  reference  to  trees,  ditches,  or  oth- 
er obstacles,  until  they  opened  the  space  of  the  archery- 
fields  agreeably  to  the  ancient  landmarks.  Such  impor- 
tance did  the  people  attach  to  this  sport ;  and  at  that 
period,  on  account  of  their  athletic  exercises,  men  were 
much  stronger  in  all  their  limbs  than  we  are  at  the  pres- 
ent day. 

This  fine  exercise  afterwards  gradually  declined,  and 
for  a  long  time  was  little  practiced  except  by  boys ; 
but  has  recently  been  revived,  particularly  in  England, 
where  every  year  meetings  of  archers,  of  both  sexes, 
frequently  occur.  These  meetings  are  attended  by  ma- 
ny of  the  female  nobility,  and  are  said  often  to  compose 


272  MENTAL   AND   PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

the  most  brilliant,  and  attractive  rural  fetes,  which  are 
enjoyed  in  that  country. 

Ladies  may  shoot  at  a  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty 
yards,  and  the  attitude  of  an  accomplished  female  arch- 
er— of  one  who  has  studied  and  practised  the  art  in  a 
proper  manner,  at  the  moment  of  bending  the  bow,  is 
particularly  graceful — all  the  actions  and  positions  tend 
at  once  to  produce  an  appearance  of  vigor  in  the  frame, 
and  to  impart  a  general  elegance  to  the  deportment. 

The  excitement  of  feeling,  which  a  competition 
among  the  fair  archers  produces,  together  with  the  mus- 
cular exertions  which  such  occasions  call  forth,  make 
this  among  one  of  the  most  healthful  and  agreeable  pas- 
times in  which  propriety  permits  young  ladies  to  in- 
dulge. 

The  face  of  the  target  has  a  gilded  centre,  around 

which  are  four  circles,  of  which  the  inner  one  is  red ; 

the  second  white  ;   the  third  black  ;    and  the  outer  one 

white,  with  a  narrow  border  of  green.     The  propor- 

Fig.  124. 


tions  maybe  as  in  the  adjoining  fig.  124.  The  diameter 
may  be  from  one  to  two  feet,  according  to  the  distance, 
and  expertness  of  the  shooters. 

The  mode  of  ascertaining  the  value  of  the  hits,  which 
is  increased  in  proportion  as  they  strike  near  the  centre, 
is  as  follows.  The  hits  in  the  centre  are  multiplied  by 
nine  ;  in  the  red,  by  three ;  in  the  inner  white  circle  by 


ARCHERY.  273 

two ;   by  adding  a  fourth  to  those  in  the  black,  and 
counting  without  alteration  those  in  the  outer  white. 

Suppose  then  that  Miss  A.  has  1  shot  in  the  centre  ; 
4  in  the  red  ;  5  in  the  white  ;  8  in  the  black  ;  and  6  in 
the  outer  white  ;  then  the  value  of  the  first  is  9  ;  the  sec- 
ond 12  ;  the  third  10  ;  the  fourth  10,  and  the  fifth 
6=47  ;  the  value  of  Miss  A's  shots.  Suppose  Miss  B. 
has  2  in  the  centre  ;  1  in  the  red  ;  3  in  the  white  ;  8  in 
the  black,  and  6  in  the  outer  white,  then  the  value  of  her 
shots  will  be,  in  the  first  18  ;  in  the  second  3  ;  in  the 
third  6 ;  in  the  fourth  10,  and  in  the  last  6=43,  the  val- 
ue of  Miss  B's  shots. 

Selection  of  Bows  and  Arrows. — Bows  should  be  from 
four,  to  five  and  a  half  feet  in  length,  according  to  the 
height  and  strength  of  the  individuals  who  are  to  use 
them. 

The  shaft  of  the  arrow  should  taper  gradually  from 
the  head,  or  pile  as  it  is  termed,  to  the  nock  or  notch, 
Fig.  125. 


Fig.  125.  The  length  of  the  arrow  should  be  from 
two  to  three  feet,  and  made  of  light  wood,  with  a  head 
of  some  harder  material,  as  lignum  vitae,  or  horn. 

In  stringing  the  bow,  which  the  lady  should  learn  to 
do  herself,  the  bend  should  not  be  greater  than  to  bring 
the  string,  in  a  bow  of  five  feet  long,  to  a  greater  dis- 
tance than  five  or  six  inches  from  the  centre.  If  the 
bow  be  bent  to  nearly  a  half  circle,  as  is  sometimes  done, 
it  destroys  a  great  proportion  of  its  elasticity,  and  at  the 
same  time  prevents  giving  the  arrow  its  full  force,  by 
requiring  the  right  hand  to  be  drawn  too  far  back  in  the 
act  of  shooting. 

To  pull  the  string  back  for  the  discharge  of  the  arrow, 
good  shooters  do  not  employ  the  thumb,  but  two,  or 
three  fingers,  the  arrow  being  held  between  the  fore 
and  second.  These  fingers  are  protected  by  a  glove  of 


274 


MENTAL    AND    PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


three  fingers,  made  of  stout  leather,  so  that  these  deli- 
cate parts  should  not  be  exposed  to  injury. 

The  bow  being  strung,  it  is  grasped,  when  about  to 
be  used,  by  the  left  hand,  at  a  little  distance  from  the 
centre  ;  well  made  instruments  having  a  place,  or  han- 
dle, for  this  purpose. 

The  arrow  is  then  to  be  taken  in  the  right  hand  by 
Fig.  126.'  the  middle,  and  carried  under  the 

string  to  the  left  of  the  bow,  until 
its  head  reaches  the  left  hand,  the 
fore  finger  of  which  receives  it,  and 
the  right  hand  is  removed  from 
the  middle  to  the  nock  :  the  arrow 
is  next  to  be  drawn  down  the 
bow,  and  the  string  placed  in  the 
nock,  with  the  red  feather  upper- 
most ;  the  fore  finger  is  then  with- 
drawn from  the  arrow,  and  pla- 
ced round  the  bow  in  its  original 
place.  The  body  now  stands  in  the  position  of  Fig.  126, 
with  the  weapon  as  there  represented. 

"  The  attitude  of  shooting,  (says  the  Ladies'  Book,)  is 
a  matter  of  much  importance  :  the  heels  should  be  a  few 
!27.  inches  apart,  the  neck  slightly  cur- 

ved, so  as  to  bring  the  head  a  little 
downward ;  the  face,  but  not  the 
front  of  the  body,  is  to  be  turned 
towards  the  mark.  The  left  arm 
must  be  held  out  quite  straight  to 
the  wrist,  which  should  be  bent  in- 
wards ;  the  bow  is  to  be  held  easy 
in  the  hand,  and  the  arrow  when 
drawn  should  be  brought,  not  to- 
wards the  eye,  but  the  ear." 

"  The  right  hand  should  begin  to 
'  draw  the  string,  as  the  left  raises  the 
bow :  when  the  arrow  is  three  parts 
drawn,  the  aim  is  to  be  taken  ;  in 
doing  this,  the  pile  should  appear  at  the  right  of  the  mark ; 
the  arrow  is  then  drawn  to  its  head,  and  immediately 
let  go."  The  arrow  passes  along  the  root  of  the  thumb 
and  fore  finger.  Fig.  127  represents  a  female  archer, 
at  the  instant  of  shooting. 


ARCHERY. 


275 


A  person  at  the  target  is  furnished  with  a  card,  marked 
off  as  follows,  for  the  convenience  of  inserting  the  names 


Name. 

Gold. 

Red. 

I.  White. 

Black. 

O.  Whi.e. 

T-.tal. 

Value. 

A 

1 

4 

5 

8 

6 

24 

47 

B 

2 

1 

3 

8 

6 

20 

43 

of  the  shooters,  and  recording  their  hits.  This  will  be 
understood  by  a  reference  to  Fig.  124,  together  with 
the  rules  for  estimating  the  value  of  the  hits  in  the  differ- 
ent circles,  already  given.  The  account  is  kept  on  the 
card,  by  making  a  pin  hole  through  the  compartments, 
corresponding  to  the  circles  on  the  target,  for  each  hit. 

We  have  been  thus  particular  in  describing  this  sport, 
because  we  consider  it  one  of  the  most  healthful  and  ap- 
propriate in  which  young  ladies  can  indulge  ;  and  can- 
not therefore  but  hope  that  it  will  be  introduced  into 
boarding  schools  generally,  as  a  recreation. 


APPENDIX. 

CONTAINING  A  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ATTITUDES  OF 
STANDING,  WALKING,  SITTING,  AND  LEANING  ;  TOGETH- 
ER WITH  REMARKS  AND  OBSERVATIONS  ON  SPINAL 
DISTORTIONS,  AND  THE  USE  OF  STAYS, 

The  attitudes  which  the  human  frame  is  capable  of 
assuming,  are  exceedingly  various,  but  physiologists 
have  reduced  them  to  two  kinds,  or  classes  ;  the  active, 
and  the  passive.  The  former  includes  all  such  as  require 
the  action  of  the  muscles,  as  standing,  or  walking ;  the 
latter,  such  as  require  no  muscular  exertion,  as  when 
the  body  lies  prostrate. 

STANDING. 

When  we  stand  on  both  feet,  considerable  muscular 
effort  is  required  to  preserve  the  upright  position  ;  and 
still  more  when  we  stand  on  only  one  foot.  In  either 
case,  the  centre  of  gravity,  which  is  between  the  hips, 
must  be  kept  over  the  base. 

In  the  first  attitude,  the  base  of  support  is  the  space 
between  the  feet,  including  the  breadth  of  the  feet  them- 
selves in  one  direction,  and  their  length  in  the  other ; 
and  hence  when  the  toes  are  turned  outwards  in  stand- 
ing, or  walking,  the  base  is  enlarged.  In  the  last,  the 
base  is  the  single  foot  only.  During  this  position  of  the 
body,  nearly  all  the  muscles  of  the  lower  extremities,  as 
well  as  those  of  the  back,  are  in  a  state  of  continual  ac- 
tion ;  and  this  is  the  reason  why  we  become  sooner  fa- 
tigued when  standing  still,  than  when  walking,  in  which 
the  muscles  are  alternately  contracted  and  relaxed. 

When  we  stand  erect,  the  vertebral  column  trans- 
mits the  weight  of  the  head,  as  well  as  of  all  the  other 


278 


APPENDIX. 


parts  of  the  body  above  the  hips,  down  through  the  low- 
er  limbs  to  the  feet ;  and  hence  the  necessity  that  this 
column  should  have  great  strength  and  firmness,  as  for- 
merly shown. 

In  standing,  if  the  spine  is  bent  backwards  so  as  to 
throw  the  line  of  the  centre  of  gravity  behind  the  base, 
the  position  soon  becomes  painful ;  since  the  muscles  of 
the  back  must  be  in  a  continued  state  of  unnatural  ten- 
sion, in  order  to  maintain  this  position,  and  also  because 
the  muscles  of  the  lower  limbs  are  unduly  straightened, 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  body  from  declining 
backwards,  and  thus  losing  its  balance.  This  uncomfort- 
able position  is  represented  by  Fig.  128. 

The  most  natural  posture  in  standing,  is  that  which 


128. 


Fig.  129. 


can  be  supported  longest  with  the  least  fatigue,  and  this 
appears  to  be  when  the  spinal  column  is  kept  in  a  posi- 
tion similar  to  that  shown  by  Fig.  63  ;  the  muscles  of 
the  back  being  kept  in  only  just  sufficient  action  to  main- 
tain the  spine  erect ;  the  chest  and  arms,  at  the  same 
time,  being  thrown  forward,  so  as  to  bring  the  centre  of 
gravity  somewhat  forward,  rather  than  behind  the  base, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  129.  In  this  posture,  all  the  muscles 
will  be  found  to  be  in  as  complete  a  state  of  relaxation, 
as  is  consistent  with  the  erect  position  of  the  body. 

If  the  pupil  will  imitate  a  few  times  the  different  pos- 
tures here  represented,  she  will  soon  find  by  experience, 
that  one  can  be  maintained  much  longer  than  the  other. 


STANDING.  279 

The  Foot. — In  describing  the  parts  concerned  in  stand- 
ing and  walking,  we  will  begin  with  the  base,  or  foun- 
dation. 

We  will  however  only  give  a  slight  description  of  the 
bones  of  this  part.  The  tarsus  is  that  part  which  reach- 
es from  the  heel  to  the  middle  of  the  foot,  marked  a,  fig. 
130.  It  is  composed  of  seven  bones.  The  metatarsus, 
6,  consists  of  five  long  bones,  laid  close  together,  and 
reaching  from  the  tarsus  to  the  roots  of  the  toes.  The 
phalanges,  c,  or  bones  of  the  toes,  are  so  called  because 
each  row  forms  a  phalanx.  Of  these  there  are  fourteen 
in  the  whole.  Thus  the  bones  of  the  foot  are  26  in 
number.  These  are  covered  with  cartilages,  and  sup- 
plied with  tendons  ;  the  first  binding  them  together  in 
the  strongest  manner,  and  the  second  giving  them  mo- 
tion in  all  directions.  There  is  indeed  no  part  of  the 
human  frame  which  is  put  together  with  so  much  care, 
and  so  strongly  guarded  against  accidents,  as  the  foot. 
It  is  obvious  that  were  this  not  the  case,  so  small  a  part 
would  not  withstand  the  violent  concussions  to  which  it 
is  subjected,  in  sustaining  the  whole  weight  of  the  body, 
in  leaping  and  other  exercises. 

The  two  bones  of  the  lower  limb,  the  tibia,  or  shin 
bone,  and  fibula,  which  is  placed  on  its  outside,  form  by 
their  lower  extremities,  the  inner  and  outer  ankle  bones. 
These  are  articulated  with  the  great  bone  of  the  foot, 
called  the  astragalus ;  by  which  a  hinge  joint  is  formed, 
having  also  some  lateral  motion. 

Now  when  we  walk,  this  joint  allows  the  foot  to  roll 
easily  upon  the  ends  of  these  bones,  so  that  the  toes  may 
be  directed  according  to  the  inequalities  of  the  surface 
over  which  we  pass.  But  when  the  foot  is  fixed  on  the 
ground,  the  muscles  instantly  act  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
give  the  joint  a  firm  support,  so  that  the  whole  body  rests 
upon  it,  while  the  other  foot  is  carried  forward. 

In  walking,  the  heel  first  touches  the  ground,  at  "which 
instant  the  bones  of  the  leg  and  foot  are  in  the  positions 
with  respect  to  each  other,  represented  by  Fig.  130.  If 
the  legs  were  situated  perpendicularly  over  the  part 
which  first  comes  to  the  ground,  we  should  come  down 
with  a  dead  blow,  or  jolt,  as  one  does  who  has  a  wood- 


280  APPENDIX. 

en  leg.     Whereas,  by  this  arrangement,  the  foot  acts  as  a 
Fig.  130.  lever  ;  and  by  the  action 

of  the  muscles,  lets  the 
weight  of  the  body  come 
down  gradually  to  the 
ground. 

But  notwithstanding 
these  easy  motions  of  the 
foot,  the  whole  becomes 
exceedingly  firm,  and  fix- 
ed, when  the  weight  of  the  body  bears  directly  upon  it ;  so 
that  the  bones  of  the  leg  will  be  fractured,  before  those 
of  the  foot  will  be  displaced,  or  will  yield  in  the  least. 

With  respect  to  the  action  of  the  muscles  connected 
with  the  foot,  which  are  concerned  in  supporting  the  bo- 
dy in  the  upright  position,  Sir  Charles  Bell  speaks  as  fol- 
io ws  : 

"  The  posture  of  a  soldier  under  arms,  when  his  heels 
are  close  together,  and  his  knees  straight,  is  a  condition 
of  painful  restraint.  Observe  then  the  change  in  his  bo- 
dy and  limbs,  when  he  is  ordered  to  "  stand  at  ease  ;" 
the  gun  falls  against  his  relaxed  arms,  the  right  knee  is 
thrown  out,  and  the  tension  of  the  ankle  joint  of  the  same 
leg  is  relieved ;  whilst  he  looses  an  inch  and  a  half  of 
his  height,  and  sinks  down  upon  the  left  hip.  This  com- 
mand to  "  stand  at  ease,"  has  a  higher  authority  than 
the  general  order.  It  is  a  natural  relaxation  of  the  mus- 
cles, which  are  consequently  relieved  from  a  painful 
state  of  exertion  :  and  the  weight  of  the  body  then  bears 
so  upon  the  lower  extremities,  as  to  support  the  joints 
independently  of  muscular  effort.  The  advantage  of 
this  will  be  understood,  when  we  consider  that  all  the 
muscular  effort  is  made  at  the  expense  of  a  living  pow- 
er, which,  if  excessive,  wrill  exhaust  the  man  ;  whilst  the 
position  of  rest  we  are  describing,  is  without  effort,  and 
therefore  gives  perfect  relief.  And  it  is  this  which 
makes  boys  and  girls,  who  are  out  of  health  and  languid, 
lounge  too  much  in  the  position  of  relief,  from  whence 
comes  permanent  distortion." 

The  standing  position  is  as  firm  as  possible,  when  the 
two  feet,  directed  forwards  on  two  parallel  lines,  are 
separated  by  a  space  equal  to  one  of  them.  If  the  base 
of  support  is  enlarged  in  a  lateral  direction,  by  separa- 


WALKING.  281 

ting  the  feet,  the  standing  becomes  more  firm  in  this  di- 
rection ;  but  is  less  so  from  behind,  and  before.  When 
one  foot  is  placed  in  a  line  before  the  other,  the  back- 
ward and  forward  support  becomes  firm,  in  proportion 
as  the  base  is  extended  in  these  directions ;  while  the 
right  and  left  foundation  is  diminished  to  the  breadth  of 
the  foot. 

The  importance  of  the  toes  in  standing,  will  be  seen, 
when  it  is  considered  that  their  loss  will  deprive  the  base 
of  about  one  fourth  of  its  length  in  that  direction.  In 
walking,  the  loss  of  these  parts  is  a  still  greater  misfor- 
tune ;  the  elasticity  of  the  step  being  thereby  so  dimin- 
ished, as  to  give  the  gait  the  appearance,  rather  of  one 
who  walks  on  wooden  legs,  than  on  sound  limbs. 

Standing  on  one  Foot. — With  respect  to  standing  on 
one  foot,  it  is  only  necessary  to  say,  that  the  base  of  sup- 
port is  reduced  to  the  surface  which  the  foot  covers,  and 
therefore  that  the  muscles  of  the  whole  limb  must  be  in 
strong  action,  in  order  to  keep  the  body  from  falling  in 
such  a  position,  which  consequently  can  only  be  support- 
ed for  a  few  minutes. 


WALKING. 

In  walking,  the  position  of  the  body  should  be  erect, 
the  head  being  always  kept  over  the  centre  of  gravity. 
The  step  should  be  firm,  with  the  toes  turned  out,  so  that 
the  foot  at  each  step,  will  make  an  angle  of  about  33  de- 
grees on  each  side  of  a  right  line  projected  forwards  on 
the  ground  through  the  centre  of  gravity.  If  the  feet  form 
parallel  lines  with  each  other  in  stepping,  the  gait  is  vul- 
gar, and  tottering  from  right  to  left,  the  base  not  being 
sufficient  to  give  a  firm  support  to  the  centre  of  gravity. 
If  the  toes  be  turned  outwards  too  much,  although  the 
lateral  sides  of  the  base  are  thereby  extended,  yet  the 
movement  is  awkward,  and  unseemly,  especially  in  la- 
dies, and  the  step  will  want  that  elasticity  from  the  ac- 
tion of  the  toes,  which  gives  lightness  and  grace  to  the 
gait.  The  foot  should  be  carried  forward  with  the  toes 
raised  sufficiently  to  avoid  impediments,  but  no  higher, 
24* 


282  APPENDIX. 

for  no  position  of  the  foot  in  walking,  is  more  graceless 
and  vulgar,  than  that  of  placing  the  heel,  with  the  toes 
so  elevated,  as  to  give  them  an  apparent  dread  of  the 
ground,  as  though  they  were  covered  with  corns.  Such 
a  lifting  up  of  the  toes,  together  with  their  parrot-like 
crossing  of  each  other  in  walking,  form  a  gait,  which  no 
well  bred  person  will  practice,  unless  compelled  to  do 
so  by  deformity,  for  with  common  attention  it  may  be 
avoided. 

Pedestrianism.  With  respect  to  the  style  of  walk- 
ing which  gives  the  greatest  velocity,  with  the  least  mus- 
cular expenditure,  pedestrians  have  learned  by  experi- 
ence to  adopt  a  manner  peculiar  to  themselves.  Capt, 
Barclay,  who  performed  the  extraordinary  feat  of  walk- 
ing 1000  miles,  in  1000  successive  hours,  inclined  his  body 
so  as  to  throw  the  centre  of  gravity  a  little  forward  of 
the  centre  of  the  base,  thus  making  its  weight  rest  chief- 
ly on  the  front  of  the  knee  joints.  His  step  was  short, 
and  he  raised  his  feet  only  a  few  inches  from  the  ground. 
Any  person,  it  is  said,  who  will  try  this  plan,  will  find  his 
pace  quickened  thereby  ;  at  the  same  time  his  walking 
will  be  more  easy  to  himself,  and  he  will  be  better  able 
to  endure  the  fatigue  of  a  long  journey,  than  by  taking 
the  erect  posture,  which  throws  too  much  of  the  weight 
of  the  body,  it  is  said,  on  the  ankle  joints.  Capt.  Bar- 
clay always  used  thick- soled  shoes,  and  lambs- wool 
stockings.  The  former  he  found  indispensable,  and  had 
them  so  large  as  to  avoid  unnecessary  pressure.  Every 
sportsman  of  the  least  experience  understands  this,  nev- 
er venturing  on  an  excursion,  however  dry  the  walking 
may  be,  with  thin-soled  boots. 


SITTING. 

The  postures  which  we  take  in  sitting,  are  exceeding- 
ly various,  and,  on  some  accounts,  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance, especially  to  youth.  Thus  we  may  sit  on  the 
ground  with  the  limbs  extended  forward  ;  or  upon  a 
low,  or  high  seat,  with,  or  without  a  back,  and  with  the 
feet  touching,  or  not  touching  the  floor,  (fee. 


, 

SITTING.  283 

The  sitting  posture,  even  without  the  support  of  the 
back,  can  be  maintained  much  longer  than  that  of  stand- 
ing, because  the  centre  of  gravity  is  thrown  nearer  the 
base  ;  and  because  the  weight  is  diminished,  and  conse- 
quently the  muscular  power  required  to  support  the  erect 
posture,  is  lessened.  But  this  position,  without  the  sup- 
port of  the  back,  after  a  time,  becomes  too  painful  to  be 
endured  with  patience. 

The  sad  consequences  of  long  confinement  in  the  sit- 
ting posture,  without  any  support  for  the  back,  have 
already  been  described  at  some  length,  under  another 
head,  but  the  more  we  have  thought  upon,  and  examin- 
ed this  subject,  the  more  important  it  appears,  and  we 
cannot  therefore,  in  duty  to  the  youth  of  our  country, 
dismiss  it,  without  some  further  considerations  and  re- 
marks. 

Causes  of  Spinal  Curvatures. — It  is  proposed  here  to 
trace  the  effects  of  the  causes  to  which  we  have  already 
referred  with  respect  to  curvatures  of  the  spine,  and  to 
show  why  certain  positions  will  make  this  deformity 
permanent. 

The  spine  itself,  detached  from  all  other  parts,  is  fig- 
ured and  described  at  p.  84,  Fig.  63,  where  the  light  col- 
ored transverse  lines  between  each  two  vertebrae, 
show  the  cartilages  of  the  spine.  These  cartilages  are 
in  the  young  subject,  about  the  fourth  of  an  inch  in 
thickness,  and  are  compressible,  and  elastic  like  pieces 
of  India  rubber.  Were  it  not  so,  the  spine  would  be 
rigid,  and,  unyielding  as  though  it  was  formed  of  one 
continued  piece  of  bone.  Its  motions  therefore  are  in 
consequence  of  the  elasticity  of  these  cartilages,  so  that 
when  the  spine  is  bent,  one  of  their  sides,  or  edges,  are 
compressed  more  than  the  other. 

In  the  night,  when  we  take  the  recumbent  posture, 
and  there  is  no  pressure  on  the  spinal  column,  these 
elastic  plates  swell  and  become  thickened,  but  their 
thickness  is  again  reduced  by  the  weight  of  the  body 
during  the  day,  and  especially  in  laborers  who  carry 
weights  on  their  heads.  The  diurnal  difference  in  the 
thickness  of  each  cartilage,  from  these  causes,  it  is  true, 
is  very  slight,  but  their  number  is  such,  as  to  make  an 


•  '  'V;^...^:.. 

284  APPENDIX. 

appreciable  difference  in  the  length  of  the  column  at  dif- 
ferent times.  In  young  persons,  the  elasticity  is  much 
greater  than  in  the  aged,  these  parts  gradually  harden- 
ing with  the  years  a  person  lives,  until  the  spine  finally 
looses  a  great  proportion  of  its  flexibility,  and  in  these 
circumstances,  there  is  very  little  diurnal  difference  in 
the  length  of  the  column.  But  in  youthful  persons,  the 
difference  in  the  length,  especially  if  they  are  tall,  be- 
tween morning  and  evening,  may  be  from  half,  to  a  quar- 
ter of  an  inch,  and  may  be  found  by  the  common  mode 
of  measuring.  Thus  do  we  grow  taller  during  the  night, 
and  shorter  during  the  day. 

Now  these  cartilages,  being  thus  compressible  and 
elastic,  in  young  persons,  but  gradually  hardening  with 
age,  it  is  plain,  that  if  one  edge,  or  side,  in  such  a  one 
be  pressed  more  than  the  other,  and  this  pressure  be 
continued  for  any  considerable  length  of  time,  they  will 
not  grow  of  a  uniform  thickness,  the  part  thus  pressed 
becoming  thinner,  and  the  opposite  part  thicker  than 
natural.  Without  reference  to  growth,  the  same  effect 
would  be  produced  by  the  pressure  of,  and  the  gradual 
hardening  of  these  parts.  Therefore,  if  the  spinal  col- 
umn be  bent  into  any  unnatural  shape,  and  the  same  pos- 
ture be  continued  day  after  day,  and  month  after  month, 
as  is  too  often  the  case  with  young  ladies  at  school,  the 
cartilagious  plates  will  finally  become  wedge  shaped, 
having  a  thick  and  a  thin  edge,  and  as  they  harden  with 
age,  they  will  continue  to  operate  as  wedges  in  retain- 
ing the  spine  in  that  crooked  state  by  which  they  were 
forced  into  this  form  :  and  thus  the  person  will  probably 
become  deformed  for  the  remainder  of  her  life,  in  spite 
of  all  the  frames,  pullies,  and  weights,  or  other  Procrus- 
tean apparatus,  which  may  be  applied  to  remedy  the 
evil. 

This  effect  would  be  produced  in  such  persons  as  had 
not  arrived  at  the  age,  when  the  cartilages  become  hard. 
But  in  those  who  are  quite  young,  as  from  infancy  to 
12,  or  14  years,  even  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column 
being  still  comparatively  soft,  would  conform  more  or 
lass,  to  the  curvature  given  it,  thus  making  a  deformity 
from  which  there  is  not  the  slightest  hope  of  relief,  since 


SITTING.  285 

the  great  beam  of  the  whole  fabric  has  thus  become 
permanently  misshapen. 

Sitting  postures  described. — It  might  perhaps  be  con- 
sidered unnecessaiy  to  give  any  instructions  on  the  most 
comfortable  manner  of  sitting,  it  being  a  natural  suppo- 
sition that  every  one  would 'consult  their  own  experi- 
ence in  this  respect.  And  yet,  it  may  be  the  case,  that 
a  few  observations  and  experiments  on  this  subject  will 
be  the  means  of  diminishing  the  pain  of  those  who  are 
for  any  considerable  time  confined  to  this  position,  and 
thus  avoid  some  of  the  evils  which  might  otherwise 
arise  from  it. 

The  sitting  posture,  it  will  be  found,  soon  becomes 
painful,  and  is  maintained  with  difficulty  when  the  infe- 
rior portion  of  the  spinal  column  is  bent  inwards,  and 
the  arms  are  thrown  back,  with  an  erect  position  of  the 
neck  and  head.  Even  when  the  spine  is  supported  by 
a  back,  as  in  a  chair,  this  posture  becomes  uneasy,  be- 
cause the  dorsal  muscles,  and  those  of  respiration  also, 
are  kept  in  an  unnecessary  state  of  action.  This  position 
will  be  understood  by  Fig.  131. 

Fig.  131.  Fig.  132. 


The  most  comfortable  posture  in  sitting,  is  that  which 
at  once  relaxes  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  those  of 
respiration — the  inferior  portion  of  the  spine  being  gen- 
tly curved  but  not  made  crooked  ;  while  the  upper  part 
is  nearly  straight,  with  the  neck  a  little  inclined,  so  as  to 


286  APPENDIX. 

relax  the  muscles  supporting  the  head.     This  position  is 
represented  by  Fig.  132. 

A  little  experience,  with  these  suggestions  in  view, 
will  teach  the  pupil,  it  is  hoped,  to  preserve  a  healthful 
and  becoming  position  at  school,  without  assuming  the 
leaning  posture,  the  consequences  of  which  are  so  per- 
nicious. 


LEANING    POSTURE. 

One  posture  which  school  girls  are  exceedingly  apt 
to  take,  is  that  of  leaning  forward,  and  placing  the  elbow 
on  the  desk  for  support ;  and  this  they  often  do,  even 
when  their  seats  are  provided  with  backs.  This  pos- 
ture, if  continued  so  as  to  form  a  habit,  will  often  show 
its  effects  on  all  occasions,  the  young  lady  having  such 
a  disposition  to  lean  as  to  indulge  it  when  any  support 
happens  to  be  near  where  she  sits,  let  the  place,  or  com- 
pany be  what  it  may.  Such  a  one  will  lean,  with  the 
hand  supporting  the  head,  when  at  home,  on  a  table,  or 
window  stool,  or  any  other  convenient  lolling  place,  for 
hours  together. 

Where  the  spine  is  weak,  in  a  growing  girl,  and  there 
is  predisposition  to  curvature,  there  is  no  posture  that 
she  can  take,  which  is  so  unfortunate,  and  will  produce 
such  a  complication  of  deformities  as  this  ;  for  if  it  is 
continued  in  one  direction,  which  is  commonly  the  case, 
the  consequences  will  be  a  curvature  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  spine,  together  with  one  high,  and  one  low  hip  ; 
one  high,  and  one  low  shoulder  ;  and  a  crooked  neck. 

The  general  deformity,  thus  induced,  is  however,  of- 
ten most  apparent  in  the  shoulder  blades,  one  of  which 
is  sometimes  thrown  so  far  out  of  place,  as  to  give  it  the 
appearance  of  absolute  dislocation,  and  which  indeed,  is 
the  case,  when  compared  with  its  mate.  Fig.  133. 

The  other  deformities  which  we  have  mentioned  as 
arising  from  the  same  cause,  may  in  some  degree  be  con- 
cealed, or  qualified  by  means  of  stays,  extra  padding, 
coussinets,  and  other  efforts  of  the  milliner's  skill,  wdth 
which  we  profess  no  acquaintance.  But  the  dislocated 
shoulder  blades,  especially  when  they  are  uncovered, 


LEANING    POSTURE.  287 

seem  to  defy  all  the  arts  of  the  most  profound  dress-ma- 
ker, for  neither  stays,  nor  buckram,  nor  foundation  mus- 
Fig.  133. 


liri,  nor  padding,  can  hide,  but  seem  rather  to  magnify 
this  deformity ;  at  least  humanity  would  hope  so,  when 
the  eye  beholds  how  great  it  still  remains,  under  the  ap- 
parent use  of  all  these  remedies. 

Far  be  it  from  us  to  speak  with  unkindness,  or  levi- 
ty on  a  subject  which  but  too  often  calls  for  commisera- 
tion, and  gravity.  But  when  we  see  those,  who  might, 
perad venture,  have  passed,  as  specimens  of  symmetrical 
form  among  the  fairest,  and  most  charming  of  the  Crea- 
tor's works,  unveiling  deformities,  (no  matter  what  might 
have  been  their  origin,)  merely  for  the  sake  of  rivalry  in 
the  extent  of  the  fashion,  we  cannot  but  lament  in  such, 
the  want  of  common  discretion,  common  prudence, 
or  common  modesty — for  did  these  unfortunates  but 
know  how  such  revelations  sometimes  affect  the  minds, 
and  perhaps  even  the  hearts  of  those  whose  kindness 
and  good  esteem  they  cannot  but  value,  they  certainly 
would  have  sacrificed  less  to  fashion,  and  more  to  de- 
cency and  discretion. 

It  is  not  pretended  that  curved  spines,  and  deformed 
shoulders,  are  caused  only,  by  the  leaning  posture  above 


288  APPENDIX. 

described,  or  that  every  one  who  even  habitually  takes 
that  posture,  will  eventually  become  crooked.  But  in 
slender,  delicately  formed  females,  from  the  ages  of 
from  12  to  14,  who  are  confined  eight  or  ten  hours  per 
day  in  the  school  room,  with  no  other  exercise,  than  a 
walk  along  the  street,  with  their  teachers,  such  a  pos- 
ture habitually  indulged  in,  will  most  surely  produce 
deformities  to  a  greater,  or  less  extent.  The  Hindoo 
devotees  who  hold  their  arms  above  their  heads  as  a 
penance,  are  often  compelled  to  carry  them  so  during 
the  remainder  of  their  lives,  the  parts  conforming  to 
this  position. 

A  highly  observant,  and  accomplished  teacher,  who 
has  spent  more  than  twenty  years  in  the  instruction 
of  females,  informs  the  author,  that  he  has  long 
been  aware  of  the  distorting  consequences  of  this 
posture,  and  that  he  could  remember  numerous  instan- 
ces, of  crooked  spines  and  dislocated  shoulder  blades 
from  this  cause  : — and  that  although  these  very  pupils 
were  nearly  every  day  warned  of  the  consequences  of 
such  a  habit,  yet,  not  seeing,  or  feeling  any  ill  effects  from 
it  themselves,  they  would  carelessly  indulge  in  it,  until 
the  posture  became  so  natural,  as  to  set  all  the  common 
means  of  prevention  at  naught,  and  thus  distortion  fol- 
lowed of  course. 

Now  if  the  young  lady  will  give  no  attention  to  the 
mandates  or  remonstrances  of  her  instructor,  or  parent, 
there  is  little  hope  of  preventing  her  indulgence  in  this, 
or  any  other  pernicious  habit,  and  such,  therefore,  must 
be  left  to  the  reward  of  their  own  doings.  But  in  most 
instances,  it  cannot  but  be  hoped  and  believed,  that 
those  who  are  aware  of  the  sad  consequences  of  this 
habit,  both  in  respect  to  personal  form  and  health, 
whether  they  become  so,  by  reading  these  observations, 
or  otherwise,  will  take  warning  in  due  time,  and  thus 
escape  that  deformity  which  is  now  but  too  common 
among  our  best  educated  females. 

DRESS    ANOTHER    SOURCE    OF    DEFORMITY. 

There  is,  or  at  least  has  been,  another  cause  of  dis- 
torted shoulders  besides  that  above  described,  and  the 


DRESS    ANOTHER    SOURCE    OP    DEFORMITY.  289 

effects  of  which,  are  in  a  great  number  of  instances  ap- 
parent, and  will  remain  so  during  the  present  genera- 
tion. This  is  the  recent  fashion  of  dressing  so  wide 
across  the  neck  as  to  leave  one,  or  perhaps  both  the 
acromion  processes,  or  shoulder  tips,  in  a  state  of  entire 
nudity. 

The  young  lady,  it  is  true,  had  the  power,  by  muscu- 
lar action,  of  hiding  a  part  of  one  shoulder  at  a  time,  but 
the  dress,  if  in  good  fashion,  could  never  be  made  to  cov- 
er both  these  processes,  except  alternately,  though  it  was 
quite  easy  to  leave  both  uncovered.  The  consequence 
of  this  fashion  was,  that,  judging  from  the  perpetual  mo- 
tion of  these  parts,  the  wearer  constantly  felt  as  though 
her  dress  was  in  danger  of  slipping  down,  and  which  she 
made  as  constant  efforts  to  prevent,  or  to  ascertain  by 
feeling  with  the  shoulder  whether  this  was  the  case,  or 
not,  until  these  motions  became  habitual,  and  therefore 
insensible.  As  the  dress  was  designed  to  cover  only 
one  shoulder  at  the  same  time,  this  partiality,  (for  which 
shoulder  it  was  intended,  we  know  not,)  was  always  ex- 
tended to  the  same  one,  because  habit  made  it  most  nat- 
ural and  comfortable ;  consequently  the  pressure  on  the 
two  sides  became  unequal,  and  the  wearer  to  counter- 
act this,  or  from  the  unnatural,  or  uneasy  feeling  conse- 
quent upon  confining  one  side,  while  its  antagonist  re- 
mained free,  constantly,  and  habitually  elevated  one 
shoulder  while  the  other  remained  stationary,  until  the 
former  became  permanently  higher  than  the  latter. 

Although  this  (without  using  any  other  epithet,)  per- 
nicious fashion,  we  believe,  is  chiefly  done  away,  at 
least  among  the  fashionables,  its  consequences  still  re- 
main, as  many  a  monument  of  its  existence  can  testify  ; 
and  therefore,  we  hope  it  will  not  be  considered  imper- 
tinent, or  improper  to  record  its  history  and  consequen- 
ces, that  mothers  may  be  aware  of  both,  when  its  turn, 
in  the  never  ending  cycle  of  costumal  changes,  shall 
again  come  round. 

Fashionable  Deformity. — The  vast  number  of  instan- 
ces, in  which  the  causes,  already  mentioned,  or  those 
which  we  shall  hereafter  notice,  have  occasioned  female 
deformity,  most  of  which  might  have  been  prevented,  is 

25 


290  APPENDIX. 

a  subject  of  very  serious  consideration,  for  besides  the 
personal  defects  thus  induced,  these  causes,  or  their  con- 
sequences, often  produce  derangement  in  the  functions 
of  the  viscera,  which  in  their  turn,  superinduce  either 
consumptions,  or  other  lingering  diseases,  which  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly difficult,  or  impossible  to  remedy,  and  which 
therefore  end  in  death. 

In  cities,  personal  deformity,  among  the  higher  class- 
es has  become  so  common,  that  it  seems  to  form  a  char- 
acteristic of  the  age  in  which  we  live.  A  few  years 
since,  and  perhaps  even  at  the  present  time,  such  was 
the  prevalence  of  curved  spines  among  those  females 
who  gave  tone  to  the  fashions,  that  it  actually  became 
the  ton  to  be  crooked,  and  many  fashionables,  who  had 
escaped  any  misfortune  in  this  respect,  contrived  to  give 
the  upper  part  of  their  spinal  columns  a  gentle  curve,  so 
as  to  imitate  the  fashionable  stoop,  of  these  female  ex- 
quisites. And  in  many  instances  where  there  was  not 
the  least  intention  of  becoming  permanently  deformed, 
but  only  to  be  in  the  fashion  for  the  season,  this  genteel 
stoop  became  a  habit,  and  nature  not  liking  such  imposi- 
tions, has  taken  these  poor  devotees  at  their  word,  and 
having  formed  the  cartilages  of  their  back  bones  into 
wedges,  has  forever  prevented  their  regaining  that  noble 
position  which  it  was  intended  that  man  alone,  among 
all  created  beings,  should  assume.  These  are  therefore 
doomed  to  continue  in  one,  and  the  same  fashion,  for  the 
remainder  of  their  lives. 


EFFECTS  OF    PRESSURE  ON    THE    MUSCLES    OF    THE    BACK. 

It  is  well  known  to  physiologists,  that  if  pressure  be 
made,  and  continued  on  any  part  of  the  system,  the 
part  so  pressed  will  be  gradually  diminished  in  conse- 
quence. Thus  if  one  limb  be  tightly  bandaged,  for  a 
length  of  time,  it  will  become  smaller* than  the  other. 
To  understand  the  reason  of  this,  it  is  necessary  to 
state,  that  every  part  of  the  system  is  furnished  with 
two  sets,  or  kinds  of  vessels,  called  the  capillaries,  one 
set  being  designed  to  secrete,  or  produce  ;  and  the  other 
to  absorb,  or  remove;  and  that  in  the  living  animal,  both 


EFFECTS  OF  PRESSURE  ON  THE  MUSCLES.    291 

kinds  are  constantly  performing  their  opposite  functions. 
The  flesh,  and  all  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  are  formed 
by  the  secretory  system,  which  consists  of  the  fine  ex- 
tremities of  the  arteries.  We  have  already  explained 
the  manner  in  which  the  food  is  converted  into  chyle  by 
the  process  of  digestion,  and  now  this  is  conveyed  into 
the  circulation,  to  be  converted  into  blood.  Now  it  is 
from  the  blood  thus  formed,  that  the  secreting  vessels 
produce  all  the  different  kinds  of  substance  of  which  the 
several  parts  of  the  animal  system  are  composed,  one 
division  forming  flesh,  another  cartilage,  and  another 
bone,  &c.  All  the  fluids  are  also  formed  by  appropriate 
organs  belonging  to  the  same  system.  Thus  one  set 
produce  tears,  another  saliva,  and  another  bile,  and 
soon. 

On  the  contrary,  the  absorbent  system  takes  up,  and 
conveys  from  one  part  to  another,  the  various  fluids 
which  are  either  employed  in  the  process  of  secretion, 
or  which  being  secreted  in  some  cavity,  or  on  some  in- 
ternal surface,  and  having  performed  its  office,  is  to  be 
conveyed  out  of  the  body.  Thus,  the  absorbents  suck 
up  the  chyle  by  millions  of  mouths,  and  carry  it  to  the 
thoracic  duct,  through  which  it  is  delivered  into  the  cir- 
culation. They  also  absorb  the  superabundant  moisture 
which  is  secreted  in  every  interior  part  of  the  body,  and 
consequently,  did  they  cease  to  act,  this  watery  fluid 
would  accumulate,  and  a  universal  dropsy  would  en- 
sue. This  disease,  as  it  occurs,  is  owing  to  the  defi- 
cient action  of  the  absorbents. 

It  is  the  o'ffice  therefore  of  the  secreting  system,  to 
produce  and  deposite  the  matter  composing  all  the  dif- 
ferent organs,  and  fluids  of  the  body ;  while  the  absor- 
bents in  their  turn,  take  up  and  carry  away,  by  slow, 
and  insensible  degrees,  the  matter  thus  deposited. 

Such  being  the  appropriate  functions  of  these  two 
great  systems  of  vessels,  which  are  distributed  to  every 
part  of  the  animal  frame,  it  is  plain  that  the  identical 
particles  of  which  we  are  composed,  are  perpetually 
changing,  and  that  in  this  respect  we  are  not  the  same 
individuals  now  that  we  were  formerly,  nor  will  our  bod- 
ies at  a  future  time,  contain  a  particle  of  the  identical 
matter  which  they  do  at  this  moment, 


292  APPENDIX. 

In  childhood,  and  youth,  when  the  frame  is  growing, 
the  secretion  is  greater  than  the  absorption  ; — in  adults, 
and  the  middle-aged,  the  effects  of  the  two  systems  are 
just  equal,  there  being  the  same  quantity  of  matter  ab- 
sorbed, that  there  is  secreted  ;  but  in  old  age  the  absorp- 
tion is  greater  than  the  secretion,  and  hence  the  weight 
and  dimensions  of  the  body  are  diminished,  and  the  skin, 
instead  of  preserving  its  tension,  as  formerly,  becomes 
wrinkled,  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  a  part  of  the 
bulk  which  it  covers. 

Thus,  during  one  portion  of  our  lives,  we  increase  in 
size  and  vigor,  until  having  arrived  at  maturity,  we  re- 
main for  a  time  stationary  in  both  ;  and  then,  lastly,  hav- 
ing passed  through  these  two  stages,  we  begin  impercep- 
tibly in  both,  to  diminish,  the  animal  functions  gradually 
becoming  more  and  more  feeble,  until  one  after  another 
they  cease  to  act  entirely,  when  life  gives  place  to  death. 
These  are  the  immutable  laws  which  govern  all  created 
beings,  and  which  therefore  no  human  means  can  resist. 
All  flesh  must  return  to  dust. 


APPLICATION    OF    THESE    PRINCIPLES. 

In  applying  these  principles  to  the  use  of  stays,  it  is 
almost  unnecessary  to  say,  that  during  the  growth  of  the 
system,  pressure,  on  any  of  its  parts,  though  it  may  be  in- 
considerable in  force,  yet  if  long  continued,  will  prevent 
their  increase  ;  and  this,  not  only  for  want  of  room  to 
expand,  but  also  by  interfering  with  the  function  of  the 
secreting  system  in  that  part.  A  lamentable  illustration 
of  the  practical  use  of  this  principle,  is  seen  in  the  feet  of 
the  Chinese  ladies  ;  which  being  confined  in  iron  shoes 
from  infancy  to  the  age  of  sixteen,  or  eighteen,  they  re- 
main infant's  feet  ever  afterwards,  though  terminating 
the  extremities  of  the  aged. 

But,  besides  this  obvious  effect  of  confinement  during 
the  growth  of  the  system,  it  is  well  known  that  in  the 
adult,  as  well  as  in  the  young,  pressure  will  also  diminish 
any  part  on  which  it  is  made,  as  already  stated  at  the 
commencement  of  these  observations.  Not  only  the 
soft,  or  fleshy  portions  of  the  system  may  be  thus  ab- 


APPLICATION    OP   THESE    PRINCIPLES.  293 

sorbed  and  removed,  but  even  the  bones  do  not  resist  the 
power  of  these  minute  vessels,  portions  of  their  solid 
parts  being  sometimes  carried  away  by  their  action. — 
Thus  the  enlargement  of  the  aorta,  or  great  artery, 
(which  passes  down  the  spine,)  by  a  disease  called  ane- 
urism, sometimes,  pressing  against  the  interior  sides  of 
the  ribs,  cause  the  entire  destruction  and  removal  of  the 
parts  thus  pressed.  We  have  seen  an  instance,  where 
several  inches  of  three,  or  four  of  the  lower  ribs,  next  to 
the  spine,  on  the  left  side,  were  entirely  removed  from 
this  cause  ;  leaving  a  soft  chasm,  where  the  pulsation  of 
the  aneurism  was  frightfully  apparent,  both  to  the  sight 
and  touch.  In  the  anatomical  collection  of  Sir  Charles 
Bell,  there  is  preserved  a  specimen,  showing  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  lateral  parts  of  four  spinal  vertebrae,  from  tha 
same  cause. 

Indolent  tumors,  caused  by  diseased  action  of  the  part, 
are  often  reduced,  and  sometimes  cured  by  pressure  on 
the  part,  which  in  these  cases  is  employed  as  a  curative 
means.  But  it  is  unnecessary  to  quote  more  practical 
examples  of  the  fact,  that  pressure  will  both  prevent  the 
growth,  and  diminish  the  bulk  of  any  part  of  the  living 
system  on  which  it  is  made.  This  fact  is  indeed  so  com- 
mon, that  inveterate  snuffers,  who  always  carry  a  pinch 
between  the  thumb  and  finger,  often  acquire  a  little  cav- 
ity in  the  ball  of  the  former,  where  they  keep  this  bane- 
ful luxury. 

The  pressure  of  stays  around  the  waist,  it  is  quite 
clear  from  the  foregoing  principles,  must  in  youth,  and 
while  the  system  is  growing,  prevent  the  full  develop- 
ment of  the  muscles  of  the  back,  by  presenting  an  imped- 
iment to  their  increase  of  bulk  ;  and  if  not  assumed  until 
the  system  has  nearly,  or  quite  attained  its  full  size,  as 
at  the  age  of  sixteen  or  nineteen,  still  the  consequences 
may  be  equally  pernicious,  since  the  form,  in  this  case, 
will  probably  be  supposed  to  require  a  degree  of  tension 
in  the  lacing  cords,  somewhat  proportionate  to  the  time 
they  have  been  delayed.  The  effect  will  therefore  be  to 
increase  the  absorption,  and  diminish  the  secretion  of 
the  parts  pressed  upon,  and  thus  to  reduce  the  bulk,  and 
consequently,  the  strength  and  vigor  of  the  muscles. 

Now  the  spinal  column  is  chiefly  supported  in  the 
25* 


294  APPENDIX* 

erect  position  by  the  strong  muscles  of  the  back,  called 
the  dorsal  muscles  ;  and  if  these,  by  any  means,  are  di- 
minished in  bulk,  or  vigor,  the  spine  will  inevitably  be- 
come distorted  ;  and  as  we  have  shown  that  tight  lacing 
produces  the  first  effect,  so  it  is  equally  certain  that  the 
last  will  follow.  Thus  the  very  means  which  a  great 
proportion  of  the  ladies  of  the  present  day,  take  to 
give  themselves  little  waists,  and  consequently,  as  they 
conceive,  inviting  forms,  become  a  deception,  because 
it  is  a  wicked  interference  with  the  laws  of  nature  ;  and 
instead  of  producing  the  desired  effect,  in  many  instan- 
ces at  least,  actually  transforms  them  into  crooked,  dis- 
gusting objects ;  and  in  the  sequel  we  shall  see  other  con- 
sequences equally  unfortunate  from  the  same  cause. 

A  mother  who  begins  to  corset  her  child  at  the  age  of 
ten  or  twelve  years,  intending  to  present  to  the  world 
a  few  years  hence,  the  u  works  of  her  own  hands,"  mod- 
ified and  moulded  according  to  her  skill  and  taste,  often 
finds  that  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  or  sixteen,  she  begins  to 
"  eat  chalk,"  look  pale,  and  grow  crooked.  To  reme- 
dy the  first,  she  detains  her  at  home,  lest  she  should  ex- 
pose herself  by  going  into  the  air,  especially  if  the  sea- 
son is  cool ;  but  finding  that  under  this  treatment,  she 
becomes  listless,  and  paler  still,  she  consults  the  family 
physician,  who  very  judiciously  prescribes  iron,  and  oth- 
er tonics,  according  to  art. 

The  crook  of  the  spine,  the  mother  undertakes  to  man- 
age by  her  own  skill,  not  letting  the  doctor  know  that 
any  thing  is  wrong  in  that  respect ;  but  only  that  the 
girl  is  growing  tall  so  fast,  that  she  has  hardly  strength 
to  keep  herself  straight — so  that  the  most  important  part 
of  the  case  is  kept  out  of  sight,  and  not  prescribed  for. 

The  kind  parent  begins  by  procuring  a  more  substan- 
tial support  for  the  back  of  her  daughter,  in  the  form  of 
new  stays,  and  which  are  made  to  order,  with  directions 
to  insert  an  extra  quantity  of  whale  bone,  and  steel ; 
and  perhaps  this  instrument  of  torture  is  padded  at  cer- 
tain points,  so  as  to  press  with  special  force  on  that  part 
of  the  spine  which  is  most  distorted,  with  the  good  in- 
tention of  forcing  it  to  its  proper  place.  The  means  of 
cure  being  thus  provided,  they  are  put  in  their  proper 
place,  and  the  cords  drawn  with  a  force,  in  some  degree 


APPLICATION    OF    THESE    PRINCIPLES.  295 

proportionate  to  the  affection  of  the  mother,  and  the 
amount  of  the  deformity  which  it  is  intended  thus  to  ob- 
viate. But  contrary  to  the  anxious  expectations  of  the 
family,  the  evil  not  only  continues,  but  increases ;  and 
paleness,  emaciation,  loss  of  appetite,  and  general  debili- 
ty supervene,  notwithstanding  the  stays  are  tightened, 
and  the  tonics  are  repeated,  with  a  liberal  hand.  But  it 
is  needless  to  pursue  the  details  of  such  a  picture.  Tt 
would  in  many  instances  lead  us  down  to  a  premature 
grave,  and  we  willingly  leave  the  closing  scene  to  those 
whose  duties  call  them  to  witness  it. 

In  such  cases  as  we  have  above  described,  (and  we 
leave  it  to  any  city  practitioner  in  our  country,  whether 
such  do  not  often  occur,)  the  use  of  tight  lacing,  wheth- 
er the  patient  has  been  habituated  to  stays,  or  corsets, 
from  her  childhood,  or  not,  is  productive  of  the  worst 
consequences.  The  muscles  of  the  back  have  already 
been  so  diminished,  and  debilitated  by  pressure,  as  to  be 
unable  to  support  the  spine,  otherwise  there  would  have 
been  no  need  of  adding  stronger  stays  ;  and  in  this  condi- 
tion, a  little  reflection  ought  to  show  that  the  offending 
cause  should  be  instantly  removed,  or  at  least  relaxed  so 
as  to  allow  the  muscles  free  action  ;  and  that  this,  with 
country  air,  time,  and  exercise,  would  afford  the  most 
reasonable  hope  of  cure.  But  by  increasing  the  pres- 
sure, the  healthy  action  of  the  muscles  is  entirely  super- 
ceded,  and  a  condition  at  least  bordering  on  palsy  of  the 
part,  is  induced,  and  thus  the  intended  remedy  increas- 
es, and  confirms  the  distortion. 

That  these  are  some  of  the  consequences  which  fol- 
low such  attempts  to  produce  fine  forms,  and  to  cure 
curved  spines,  could  have  been  inferred  from  physiolo- 
gical principles  ;  but  without  depending  on  inferences, 
almost  every  person  of  common  observation  has  seen  a 
sufficient  number  of  living  witnesses,  to  convince  him 
that  thousands  of  such  cases,  or  at  least  cases  of  female 
deformity,  do  exist. 

No  fashionable  dress  maker  will  deny,  that  one  in 
four  or  five  of  her  customers,  among  what  are  called 
first  rate  young  ladies,  do  not  require  padding,  or  stuf- 
fing, on  one  part  or  another,  in  order  to  conceal  some 
deformity,  or  make  one  side  equal  with  the  other. 


296  APPENDIX. 

Now  we  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  mere  extrava- 
gances, or  follies,  if  they  exist,  of  the  female  costume  of 
the  present  day  ;  our  design  being  to  speak  only  of  such 
fashions,  or  habits  of  dressing,  as  produce  deformities, 
and  disease :  and  in  this  respect,  and  on  this  subject, 
there  are  facts  so  common,  and  so  deplorable,  that  they 
ought  to  induce  thousands  to  raise  their  voices,  and  their 
authority,  against  the  practices  to  which  their  origin  is 
plainly  to  be  traced. 


EFFECTS    OF    TIGHT    LACING    UPON    THE    LUNGS. 

It  is  true,  that  while  the  bones  of  animals  are  in  a  soft 
and  pliable  state,  which  is  always  the  case  when  they 
are  young,  their  natural  forms  may  be  modified,  or 
moulded  into  almost  any  shape.  Even  the  head,  togeth- 
er with  its  contents,  that  noblest  of  all  created  organs  in 
a  reasoning  being,  can  be  changed  from  its  natural  form, 
to  a  parallelogram,  or  cube,  as  the  customs  of  the  Flat- 
headed  Indians  abundantly  prove.  Nor  are  we  aware 
that  this  change  produces  any  evil,  either  to  the  bodily 
health,  or  intellectual  faculties  ;  and  since  our  design,  as 
already  declared,  is  only  to  condemn  those  fashions 
which  by  producing  deformities,  or  otherwise,  tend  to 
shorten  life,  or  produce  disease,  we  should  have  nothing 
to  say  against  the  fashion  of  moulding  the  cranium  into 
any  form  which  the  taste  of  the  age  might  propose,  if  in- 
deed no  bad  effects  followed. 

But  if  our  female  readers  will  examine  the  trunk  of 
the  human  skeleton,  represented  at  fig.  95,  and  observe 
in  what  manner  the  five  lower  ribs  are  attached,  and 
how  readily,  in  the  young  subject  especially,  they  would 
so  yield  to  the  force  of  a  tight  band,  as  greatly  to  dimin- 
ish the  cavity  they  were  intended  to  maintain  ;  and  also 
remember  that  this  cavity  contains  the  vital  organs,  the 
heart  and  lungs,  neither  of  which  will  endure  pressure 
with  impunity — we  think  that  on  contrasting  this  with 
fig.  137,  they  can  hardly  avoid  the  conclusion,  that  other 
sad  consequences  must  follow  the  use  of  tight  lacing,  be- 
sides the  deformities  we  have  described. 


EFFECTS    OF    TIGHT    LACING.  297 

It  is  shown  by  fig  96,  and  its  description,  that  the 
lungs  are  always  in  contact  with  the  diaphragm,  and 
that  they  completely  fill  the  cavity  of  the  chest  on  each 
side  of  the  heart ;  this  cavity  cannot  therefore  be  dimin- 
ished, without  exerting  a  direct  pressure  on  the  organs 
of  respiration. 

It  is  further  shown,  p.  156,  that  the  lungs  are  compos- 
ed of  a  tissue  of  blood,  and  air  vessels,  of  such  extreme 
tenuity,  that  the  latter  have  been  computed  to  amount  to 
nearly  two  hundred  millions  in  number,  forming  a  sur- 
face of  many  hundred  feet  in  extent ;  and  that  the  blood 
vessels  are  equally  numerous,  presenting  a  surface  simi- 
larly extensive.  And,  however  incredible  it  may  ap- 
pear, the  whole  extent  of  these  two  surfaces,  thus  pre- 
sented to  each  other,  and  by  means  of  which  a  vital  pro- 
cess is  effected,  without  which  we  could  not  live  a  mo- 
ment, is  still  contained  within  the  narrow  spaces  occupied 
by  the  lungs ;  each  of  which  do  not  exceed  a  foot  in  one 
direction,  and  six  or  eight  inches  in  the  other. 

Now  who  believes,  that  organs  so  "  wonderfully  and 
fearfully  made," — so  frail  and  delicate  in  their  structure, 
as  to  present  tissues  of  circulating  vessels  scarcely  ex 
ceeding  a  spider's  web  in  size,  will  permit  such  an  abuse, 
as  to  be  compressed  into  one  third,  or  even  one  half  their 
natural  dimensions,  without  some  punitive  infliction  on 
those  who  have  the  temerity  to  offer  such  violence  to 
nature. 

The  first  effect  produced  by  compressing  the  lungs, 
will  be  a  want  of  due  oxygenation  of  the  blood  ;  because 
many  of  these  minute  vessels  must  thereby  be  closed 
against  the  admission,  both  of  the  air,  and  the  circulating 
fluid. 

By  a  reference  to  the  article  "Circulation,"  p.  134,  it 
may  be  seen  that  in  the  Amphibia,  only  one  half  of  the 
blood  circulates  through  the  lungs  ;  and  that  in  the  Fish- 
es, there  is  no  aorta  by  which  it  is  carried  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  system,  as  in  other  animals.  The  quantity 
of  blood  in  the  latter  is  also  exceedingly  small,  when 
compared  with  that  of  other  animals  of  the  same  size. 
In  the  amphibious  animals,  therefore,  the  circulating  flu- 
id consists  of  one  half  arterial,  and  the  other  half  venous 
blood  ;  and  on  this  account,  these  tribes  are  cold-blood- 


298  APPENDIX. 

ed,  torpid,  and  almost  without  feeling.  In  the  fishes,  the 
small  quantity  of  the  circulating  fluid,  the  want  of  an  aor- 
ta to  give  it  velocity  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body, 
and  the  minute  quantity  of  air  the  water  contains;  all 
conspire  to  keep  the  temperature  of  these  animals  down 
to  that  of  the  element  in  which  they  live,  and  to  give 
their  flesh  a  pallid  hue,  so  different  from  the  florid  com- 
plexion of  that  of  the  Mammalia. 

It  is  true  that  the  organization  of  these  animals,  is  un- 
doubtedly well  fitted  to  their  conditions,  and  the  places 
they  were  intended  to  occupy  in  the  scale  of  creation. 
But  we  find,  as  we  rise  in  this  scale,  that  the  organs  of 
animals  become  more  perfect,  and  that  in  the  Mamma- 
lia, and  man,  the  respiratory  apparatus  is  so  complete,  as 
'  to  expose  the  whole  mass  of  blood  to  the  influence  of 
the  atmosphere  ;  and  that  the  circulating  system  is  such 
as  to  propel  the  vital  fluid  with  great  force  and  rapidity, 
to  every  part  of  the  frame  ;  and  hence  it  is,  that  these 
animals  differ  so  materially  from  those  in  which  the  res- 
piratory function  is  less  perfect,  and  the  circulation  less 
rapid  and  vigorous.  In  the  former  we  find  a  tempera- 
ture of  98°  or  100°  at  all  seasons,  instead  of  a  death-like 
coldness  ;  and  a  high  degree  of  vigor  and  vivacity,  with 
a  red  muscular  fibre,  instead  of  torpor,  insensibility,  and 
white  flesh,  as  in  the  latter. 

Now  if  these  very  remarkable  differences  are  in  any 
considerable  degree  dependent  on  the  quantity  of  oxy- 
gen, which  the  different  races  consume  by  the  process 
of  respiration,  and  which  the  facts  we  have  detailed 
would  seem  to  prove  beyond  all  doubt ;  then  is  it  not  as 
clear,  that  by  compressing  the  lungs  so  as  to  prevent  the 
ordinary  supply  of  oxygen  in  respiration,  that  the  vigor 
of  the  circulation,  which  depends  on  that  process,  must 
gradually  be  diminished  ;  and  that  paleness,  torpor,  list- 
lessness,  and  gradual  emaciation,  from  poverty  of  the 
blood,  and  a  consequent  want  of  a  healthy  secretion, 
must  be  the  consequences  ? 

•  It  is  quite  certain  that  all  these  consequences,  in  very 
numerous  instances,  follow  excessive  lacing  in  young  fe- 
males ;  and  from  the  hurried,  and  laborious  respiration, 
which  those  exhibit  who  are  undergoing  the  process  of 
being  moulded  into  a  fashionable  form,  there  cannot  be 


EFFECTS    OF    TIGHT    LACING.  299 

a  doubt  but  the  aeration  of  the  blood  is  defective  ;  and 
hence  the  necessity  of  the  quick  and  unnatural  inspira- 
tions, in  order  to  maintain  the  circulation,  which  would 
cease  the  moment  the  air  ceased  to  act  upon  it.  These 
devotees,  besides  betraying  their  sufferings  by  a  quick- 
ened respiration,  shew  also  by  the  livid  color  of  the  lips, 
that  the  blood  is  not  sufficiently  decarbonized;  or  is  not 
completely  changed  from  the  dark  venous,  to  the  light 
arterial.  (See  p.  157.) 

It  cannot  be  supposed  by  those  who  will  reflect  upon 
the  subject,  that  the  laws  of  the  animal  economy  can  be 
thus  disregarded,  for  any  considerable  length  of  time, 
without  inducing  the  most  disastrous  consequences  to 
the  general  health  and  constitution.  Every  one  knows 
that  air  is  the  pabulum  of  life,  and  that  a  free,  pure  at- 
mosphere, is  absolutely  necessary  for  vital  and  muscular 
energy.  Whoever,  therefore,  interrupts  the  free  ingress 
of  air  to  the  lungs,  besides  the  injury  which  will  follow 
to  the  organs  themselves,  does  the  same,  in  effect,  as  to 
create  a  vitiated  atmosphere  for  her  own  use  ;  since  in 
both  cases,  a  full  supply  of  oxygen  is  equally  wanting, 
and  in  both,  the  consequences  are  the  same. 

Those,  therefore,  who  create  by  stays,  corsets,  or  oth- 
erwise, such  a  continued  pressure  on  the  lungs  as  to  in- 
terfere with  their  regular  and  appropriate  functions, 
may  expect  sooner  or  later,  to  suffer  either  sudden  death 
by  apoplexy,  disability  by  palsy,  or  at  least,  a  gradual 
decay  of  the  constitution,  attended  witji  fetid  breath, 
affections  of  the  lungs,  liver,  or  other  viscera,  and  which 
will  terminate  in  the  prostration,  and  final  extinction  of 
all  the  powers  of  life. 

Pulmonary  Consumption  in  consequence  of  pressure 
on  the  Lungs. — It  is  most  probable,  that  when  a  degree 
of  pressure  is  made  on  the  lungs  sufficient  to  bring  the 
fine  tissue  of  vessels,  of  which  they  are  composed,  into 
such  a  state  of  collapse,  as  to  prevent  the  ingress  of  air, 
and  the  circulation  of  the  vital  fluid,  that  the  portions  so 
pressed  suffer  a  slight  degree  of  inflammation,  in  con- 
sequence of  which,  they  adhere  into  masses,  more  or  less 
solid,  thus  closing  them  entirely,  and  preventing  ever  af- 
terwards, though  the  pressure  may  be  removed,  the  full 


300  APPENDIX. 

and  healthful  aeration  of  the  blood.  From  this  cause 
there  would  arise  all  the  consequences  which  come  from 
living  in  a  vitiated  atmosphere,  or  from  breathing  air 
which  contains,  perhaps,  only  one  half  the  usual  quanti- 
ty of  oxygen,  as  above  explained.  In  such  cases,  it  is 
possible,  thjit  no  other  effect  on  the  lungs  themselves  may 
follow  ;  the  subject  gradually  declining  from  general  de- 
bility, and  such  poverty  of  the  blood  as  to  allow  of  no 
healthy  secretions,  and  thus  sink  down  to  the  grave  with- 
out the  usual  symptoms  of  pulmonary  consumption. 
Such  may  be  said  literally,  "  to  die  for  want  of  breath ;" 
not  however,  stopped  by  "  the  destroying"  but  the  self- 
destroying  angel,  if  indeed  angels  ever  assist  on  such 
occasions. 

It  is  perhaps  singular,  that  this  state  of  the  lungs  often 
betrays  itself  by  an  offensive  breath,  without  ulceration, 
a  designed  infliction,  perhaps,  on  those  who  thus  vio- 
late nature's  laws.  But  if  nature  is  sometimes  slow 
in  resenting,  and  avenging  the  insults  offered  her, 
and  allows  some  to  live  on  for  years  who  habitually  vio- 
late her  laws,  others  are  brought  to  speedy  account  for 
such  temerity  ;  for  it  is  well  known  that  blood-spitting, 
hectic  fever,  and  finally  all  the  concomitants  of  consump- 
tion of  the  lungs,  follow  excessive  lacing,  many  of 
which  terminate  in  a  short  period.  Healthy  females, 
who  have  no  family  predisposition,  and  who  begin  this 
practice  late  in  life,  as  from  eighteen  to  twenty,  are  not 
so  apt  to  suffer  as  those  who  have  such  a  predisposition, 
and  are  laced  from  their  childhood. 

In  the  former,  however,  the  most  pernicious  conse- 
quences sometimes  follow,  as  where  a  fine  healthy  coun- 
try girl,  who  never  had  been  laced,  happens  to  visit  her 
fashionable  cousins  in  town ;  and  who  of  course,  will  not 
be  seen  in  the  streets  with  her,  in  such  a  countrified 
shape.  The  poor  girl  must  therefore  be  literally  screw- 
ed into  the  city  form,  before  she  is  allowed  to  "  see  com- 
pany ;"  and  having  perhaps  a  capacious  chest,  such  as 
nature  formed,  and  this  being  composed  of  a  bony  frame- 
work, it  is  impossible  to  bring  it  within  the  compass  of 
the  fashionable  mould,  without  lapping  the  ends  of  the 
ribs  either  over  or  under  the  breast  bone. 


EFFECTS    OF   TK3HT  LACING.  301 

This  effect  follows  in  numerous  instances,  attended 
with  a  hard  projection  on  one  side  of  the  breast  bone, 
and  a  hollow  on  the  other ;  or  the  bone  itself  in  other 
instances,  has  one  of  the  edges  thrown  outward  and  the 
other  turned  inward,  consequently  because  the  lungs,  as 
already  shown,  entirely  fill  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  one  or 
both  of  the  lobes,  besides  the  general  pressure,  must  suf- 
fer a  local  injury  from  the  interior  protuberance  thus 
formed. 

More  than  one  instance  of  this  effect  from  excessive 
lacing,  has  come  within  the  knowledge  of  the  author ; 
and  more  than  one  who  reads  these  observations  will  ac- 
knowledge perhaps  mentally,  the  truth  of  the  statements 
here  made,  and  will  be  able  to  bring  examples  either  in 
themselves  or  their  friends. 

Dr.  Morton9 s  case,  proving  the  above  assertions. — But 
since  many  profess  to  doubt  the  injurious  consequences 
of  tight  lacing  on  the  lungs,  at  least  so  far  as  themselves 
are  concerned,  we  will  here  offer  an  abstfact  of  a  case 
for  the  consideration  of  such  ;  and  which  we  cannot  but 
hope  will  be  thought  worthy  of  serious  notice  by  our  fe- 
male readers.  It  is  from  a  work  on  consumption,  by 
Dr.  Morton,  of  Philadelphia. 

"  A  lady,"  says  he,  "  aged  thirty-two  years,  of  strong 
constitution,  and  good  frame,  but  of  a  nervous  tempera- 
ment, with  dark  hair,  and  brunette  complexion,  had  been 
for  some  time  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Hodge,  for  an  attack 
of  severe  nervous  irritation :  when  in  the  absence  of 
that  gentleman,  I  was  requested  to  see  her  on  the  6th  of 
May,  1833.  On  my  arrival  I  found  her  dying,  and  she 
survived  but  a  few  hours. 

"  There  was  no  obvious  emaciation,  but  the  thorax 
was  contracted  by  a  depression  of  the  breast  bone,  so 
as  to  reduce  the  diameter  between  it  and  the  spine.  On 
removing  the  pectoral  muscles,  the  five  or  six  superior 
ribs  were  observed  to  be  considerably  depressed  at 
their  extremities,  where  the  cartilages  joined  them  to  the 
sternum,  and  at  which  point  there  was  a  remarkable  an- 
gle which  protruded  into  the  thorax.  The  left  lung  ad- 
hered at  its  apex,  at  which  point  the  pleura,  [the  mem- 
brane covering  the  interior  of  the  ribs,]  was  deeply  con- 
26 


302  APPENDIX. 

tracted,  or  puckered.  Within  was  observed  a  rounded 
white  mass,  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  composed  of  lit- 
tle grains  of  a  cartilaginous  firmness  :  this  was  obvious- 
ly a  cicatrized  [healed]  abscess,  and  in  its  centre  were 
two  or  three  crude  tubercles,  [the  commencement  of 
suppurative  ulcers.]  The  remainder  of  the  lung  was 
perfectly  healthy. 

"The  right  lung,  like  the  left,  adhered  at  the  apex, 
where  the  pleura  was  also  deeply  sunk,  and  puckered  ; 
beneath  one  of  these  plications  was  the  remains  of  an 
old,  but  very  small  abscess,  half  filled  with  granular  mat- 
ter, like  that  in  the  other  lung,  excepting  that  it  was  of 
a  darker  color ;  the  remainder  of  the  abscess  was  in  a 
suppurative  state,  and  contained  yellow  matter.  Close 
by  were  the  evidences  of  a  second  cavity,  of  the  size  of 
a  filbert,  but  perfectly  filled,  and  consolidated  by  white 
granular  matter,  precisely  like  that  of  the  left  lung.  The 
other  parts  were  healthy. 

"  The  unexpected  morbid  appearances  of  the  lungs," 
says  Dr.  Morton,  "  induced  me  to  inquire  into  the  pre- 
vious history  of  the  patient,  when  I  was  informed  by  a 
near  relative,  that  in  early  life  she  had  habituated  herself 
to  excessive  tight  lacing ;  but  although  she  had  never  ex- 
perienced any  obvious  ill  effects  from  this  practice,  she 
had  of  lateryears  discontinued  the  practice,  from  a  con- 
viction of  its  injurious  tendency." 

"  It  seems  probable,  therefore,"  he  continues,  "  all  cir- 
cumstances considered,  that  the  lungs  became  tubercu- 
lous and  cavernous  from  the  irritation  of  mechanical 
pressure ;  but  on  the  latter  being  removed  the  morbid 
secretion  ceased,  and  the  cavities  became  cicatrized  and 
obliterated  in  the  manner  just  mentioned.  Can  there  be 
a  doubt  that  if  this  lady  had  persisted  in  the  unnatural 
confinement  of  her  respiratory  organs,  the  tuberculous 
disease  would  have  extended,  the  abscesses  enlarged,  and 
the  disease  become  a  fatal  malady  ?  The  predisposition 
to  puthisis  [consumption]  being  slight,  it  was  suspended 
by  the  removal  of  the  exciting  mechanical  cause  ;  show- 
ing what  important  results  physical  education  may  pro- 
duce on  the  human  frame.*" 

*  Illustrations  of  Consumption,  by  Samuel  George  Morton.  M.  D., 
&c.  &c.  pp.  99.  Key  &  Biddle,  Philadelphia,  1834. 


EFFECTS    OF    TIGHT    LACING.  303 

Says  Dr.  Reid,  "  Very  straight  lacing,  and  straining 
for  a  fine  shape,  hath  made  many  a  fine  girl  spit  blood, 
and  ruined  the  lungs  by  preventing  a  full  and  free  respi- 
ration." On  Consumption,  p.  99. 

Now  since  the  practice  of  tight  lacing,  if  not  universal, 
is  at  least  exceedingly  common,  and  as  the  remains  of 
comparatively  few  who  die  of  diseases  of  the  lungs  are 
submitted  to  post  mortem  examination,  it  is  impossible 
to  give  any  conjecture  of  the  number  who  destroy  them- 
selves in  this  way.  But  I  have  no  doubt  that  the 
ladies  themselves,  to  a  considerable  extent,  will  agree 
with  me  in  believing,  that  hundreds,  nay  thousands,  of 
females  literally  kill  themselves  every  year  by  this  fashion 
in  our  own  country :  and  if  suicide  is  a  crime,  how  will 
such  escape  in  the  day  of  final  account  ? 

We  have  represented  by  figures  134  and  135  the  dif- 
ference between  a  natural  human  skeleton,  and  one  in 
Fig.  134.  Fig.  135. 


which  the  pressure  of  stays  has  pushed  the  front  ends  of 
the  ribs  inwards,  bending  the  soft  cartilages,  so  as  to 
make  them  form  acute  angles  outwards.  It  will  be  ob- 
vious to  those  who  will  reflect  on  this  subject,  even  only 
for  a  moment,  that  the  ribs  cannot  possibly  sustain  the 
force  often  applied  to  them  in  the  process  of  forming  a 
slim  waist,  in  a  girl  of  eighteen,  without  yielding  in  one 
direction  or  another ;  otherwise,  and  if  the  circumfer- 
ence remained  the  same,  no  difference  would  be  made 
in  the  size  of  the  chest,  except  that  resulting  from  the 
compression  of  the  fleshy  fibres  by  which  it  is  covered  ; 


304  APPENDIX. 

and  this  certainly  is  not  sufficient  to  account  for  the  ef- 
fects actually  produced.  If  we  undertake  to  diminish 
the  circumference  of  a  hoop,  we  shall  find  it  impossible 
to  do  so,  without  having  the  ends  where  the  circle  is 
joined  shoot  by,  or  lap  over  each  other.  The  lower  ribs, 
the  cartilages  of  which  join  the  breast  bone  obliquely, 
leaving  a  space  between  their  ends,  may  be  pressed  so 
as  to  diminish  the  circumference,  by  forcing  these  parts 
inward  upon  the  lungs,  without  producing  this  effect ; 
but  the  upper  ribs,  which  are  continued  directly  forward 
to  the  breast  bone,  by  their  cartilages,  cannot  have  their 
circumferences  shortened  without  doubling  these  parts 
upon  their  ends.  The  consequence  of  this  will  be,  that 
these  ends,  on  one  side  or  the  other,  must  project  inward 
upon  the  lungs,  as  shown  in  the  case  dissected  by  Dr. 
Morton,  and  stated  above. 

The  diminution  of  capacity  in  Fig.  135,  when  com- 
pared with  134,  is  not  nearly  so  great  as  we  believe  act- 
ually takes  place  in  many  instances  of  tight  lacing,  the 
figure  being  made  to  show  the  displacement  of  parts  in 
the  skeleton,  by  that  process,  rather  than  the  extent  of 
its  effects, 

MORTALITY   BY    CONSUMPTIVE    DISEASES. 

In  Great  Britain  it  is  estimated  that  50,000  persons 
die  annually  of  consumption. 

In  the  the  city  of  New  York,  the  whole  number  of 
deaths  of  all  ages  and  diseases,  in  five  years,  namely, 
from  the  beginning  of  1829  to  the  end  of  1834,  was 
31,822,  making  a  yearly  average  of  6364. 

Now  it  is  known  by  the  reports  of  the  Inspector,  that 
nearly  one  in  five  of  the  mortality  of  that  city  are  of  con- 
sumption, in  one  form  or  another,  which  would  give  the 
number  of  1272  per  year  who  die  of  this  disease  in  that 
city  alone.  The  cities  of  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and 
Boston  present  similar  bills  of  mortality  from  the  same 
cause;  and  these  bills  also  show  that  much  the  largest 
proportion  of  these  are  females.  But  there  is  no  reason 
to  believe  that  females  are,  from  their  organization,  any 
more  predisposed  to  consumption  than  the  males.  How 
then  shall  we  account  for  the  difference  of  mortality 


PREVENTION   OF   SPINAL    DISTORTION.  305 

from  this  disease,  but  by  attributing  it  to  a  mode  of  dress, 
which  no  one  will  deny  does  in  many  instances,  at  least, 
not  only  create  such  a  predisposition,  but  actually  and 
obviously  brings  on  the  disease;  and  from  which  the 
males,  even  of  the  same  families,  escape,  by  using  a 
dress  which  allows  the  functions  of  the  lungs  to  be  con- 
tinued agreeably  to  the  laws  of  the  animal  economy,  and 
the  design  of  the  Creator. 

PREVENTION    OF    SPINAL    DISTORTION. 

It  is  no  part  of  the  plan  of  this  work  to  point  out  the 
methods  of  cure  proposed,  and  practiced  by  surgeons 
and  physicians,  for  the  various  deformities  and  other 
affections,  in  young  females,  consequent  upon  the  causes 
wrhich  have  been  noticed  in  the  foregoing  pages.  And 
yet,  we  can  hardly  avoid  saying  a  few  words  on  this 
subject  for  the  purpose  of  showing  young  ladies  what 
terrible  remedies  are  employed  for  these  deformities, 
and  how  difficult  it  is  to  cure  them,  even  in  their  incipi- 
ent stages.  This  we  do  as  a  warning  to  those  who  are 
still  in  the  enjoyment  of  their  natural  forms,  not  to  make 
use  of  any  of  the  means,  or  indulge  themselves  in  any  of 
the  habits  which  we  have  described  as  the  causes  of  such 
evils.  And  also,  as  a  caution  to  mothers,  how  they  en- 
courage their  young  daughters  in  tight  lacing  for  the  sake 
of  procuring  genteel  forms,  lest  thereby  they  should  thus 
become  the  authors  of  disgusting  diseases  which  art 
never  can  remedy,  instead  of  the  fine  shapes  which  they 
expect  will  be  so  much  admired  and  coveted. 

The  attempts  heretofore  most  commonly  made  to 
cure  curved  spines  have  been  by  means  of  various  ma- 
chines, consisting  of  beams,  bars,  pullies,  ropes,  screws, 
inclined  planes,  straps  and  buckles,  more  or  less  of  which 
are  combined,  and  applied  in  different  ways,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  case,  or  the  skill  of  the  mechanic  by 
whom  these  machines  are  employed. 

The  late  Mr.  Shaw,  a  surgeon  of  reputation  in  Lon- 
don, who  has  written  a  treatise  on  the  cure  of  curved 
spines,  says  that  it  is  the  practice  of  some  to  keep  young 
girls  afflicted  with  this  disease  in  a  horizontal  position, 
for  months,  and  even  for  years,  " without  intermission" 
26* 


Jr 

306  APPENDIX. 

Stretching  machines  are  also  employed,  which,  by 
means  of  straps  passing  under  the  chin,  and  around  the 
back  of  the  head,  keep  the  spine  in  a  continued  state  of 
tension.  Nearly  the  whole  weight  of  the  body  is  sus- 
pended by  the  straps,  and  thus  are  often  used,  until  the 
chin  becomes  ulcerated,  and  the  countenance  perma- 
nently deformed,  in  consequence  of  their  pressure  on 
these  parts. 

Another  invention  for  the  same  purpose  consists  of 
complicated  machinery  fitted  to  the  back,  and  which 
the  miserable  sufferer  is  doomed  constantly  to  wear. 
With  respect  to  one  of  these,  Mr.  Shaw  says,  "  I  could 
not  have  believed  (had  I  not  seen  the  fact)  that  with  the 
most  determined  resolution  to  endure  pain,  any  person 
would  have  submitted  to  the  punishment  of  carrying 
such  a  machine  on  the  back  for  twelve  months." 

Of  the  stretching  chair,  another  apparatus  for  straight- 
ening young  spines,  Mr.  Shaw  says,  "  the  windlass  by 
which  the  crane  is  elevated,  and  to  which  the  patient's 
head  is  proposed  to  be  attached,  is  so  powerful  that  it 
might  almost  tear  the  head  from  the  body." 

For  the  same  purpose  the  rope  and  pulley  is  not  only 
used,  so  as  to  raise  the  patients  from  the  ground  by  the 
chin,  but  to  keep  them  thus  suspended  for  some  time. 
"  Until,"  says  Mr.  Shaw,  "I  saw  several  patients  under- 
go this  experiment,  I  could  not  believe  that  it  was  ever 
put  into  practice ;-.  for  it  is  quite  obvious  that  while  a 
child  is  suspended  by  the  chin,  the  ligaments  of  the  neck 
must  be  stretched  to  a  dangerous  degree."  On  exam- 
ining girls  who  had  been  daily  swung  up  for  months,,  in 
this  manner,  the  same  writer  found,  that  the  muscles 
passing  from  the  head  to  the  neck,  were  so  increased  in 
size,  as  to  make  a  new  species  of  deformity. 

It  ought,  however  to  be  understood,  that  these  are  the 
methods  employed  by  quacks  and  irregular  practition- 
ers for  the  cure  of  distorted  spines,  and  that  most  of  them 
are  condemned  by  well  educated  physicians.  In  this 
country  similar  machines  are  made  use  of  for  the  same 
purpose,  and  with  what  success  the  patients  and  their 
friends  are  the  best  judges.  It  is  certain,  however,  that 
the  patient,  as  well  as  her  friends,  are  often  deceived  by 
an  apparent  cure,  when  the  disease  and  distortion  are 


PREVENTION    OF    SPINAL    DISTORTION.  307 

only  confirmed  and  increased  by  this  kind  of  treatment. 
The  spine  it  is  true  may  be  stretched  into  shape,  by 
screws  and  pullies,  but  if  the  muscles  of  the  back  are 
pressed,  or  their  action  superseded  by  the  machinery, 
the  cure  will  be  found  to  last  no  longer  than  the  machine 
is  employed,  and  when  this  is  removed  the  curvature 
will  gradually  return,  and  probably  become  worse  than 
before,  because  the  muscles  by  inaction  are  still  less 
able  to  support  it  in  the  erect  position  than  when  such 
treatment  commenced. 

A  variety  of  other  machines  besides  those  above 
mentioned,  have  been  invented  and  are  employed  for 
the  same  purpose,  both  in  Europe  and  in  our  own  coun- 
try. One  of  these  is  constructed  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  forcing  the  vertebrae  into  their  places,  under  the 
mistaken  notion  that  in  certain  cases  of  distorted  spines 
these  bones  are  dislocated.  There  is  no  doubt  but  many 
a  sufferer  from  spinal  distortion,  through  the  ignorance 
of  herself,  her  family,  and  of  the  practitioner,  have  fallen 
disabled  victims  to  the  use  of  these  machines.  But 
perhaps  enough  has  been  said  on  this  subject. 

It  is  not  pretended  that  want  of  exercise,  improper 
postures  in  sitting,  and  the  use  of  excessive  lacing  are 
the  sole  causes  of  spinal  distortions.  On  the  contrary, 
these  affections  are  sometimes  the  consequences  of  dis- 
eases which  probably  no  prudence  or  foresight  on  the 
part  of  the  sufferer  or  her  friends  could  have  avoided. 
But  that  the  greatest  proportion  of  these  cases  are  ow- 
ing to  the  causes  assigned,  those  who  will  examine  the 
subject  will  have  not  the  least  doubt. 

Girls,  from  their  organization,  are  no  more  obnoxious 
to  these  affections  than  boys,  but  with  the  exception  of 
rickets,  to  which  both  sexes  are  liable,  we  may  look  al- 
most in  vain  for  a  case  of  spinal  distortion  among  the 
latter.  And  besides,  if  we  go  into  the  country,  where 
fashion  allows  nature,  and  not  art,  to  mould  the  female 
form,  arid  where  the  children  of  both  sexes  take  nearly 
the  same  amount  of  the  same  kinds  of  exercise,  in  the 
open  air,  there  will  be  found  but  little  difference  in  the 
number  of  spinal  distortions  in  the  two  sexes,  instances 
of  either  being  comparatively  rare. 

If,  then,  parents  and  school  teachers  would  avoid  the 


308  APPENDIX. 

evils  in  question,  they  must  remember  that  the  first  and 
grand  rule  in  Physical  Education  is,  or  ought  to  be, 
never  to  interfere  with,  or  disregard  the  laws  of  the  ani- 
mal economy,  in  the  treatment  of  their  children,  or 
pupils. 

We  do  not  mean  by  this,  that  children  and  scholars 
are  not  to  be  placed  under  restraint,  or  that  a  proper 
and  wholesome  degree  of  discipline  is  unnecessary  or 
improper.  On  the  contrary,  full  liberty  of  person  and 
action  during  the  buoyancy  arid  inexperience  of  youth, 
would  lead  to  opposite  consequences,  more  to  be  dread- 
ed than  the  strictest  discipline  to  which  children  have 
ever  been  subjected.  But  in  no  event  should  the  disci- 
pline of  children  be  such  as  to  interfere  with,  or  counter- 
act the  physiological  functions  of  any  portion  of  their 
growing  systems.  And  we  need  not  repeat  here  what 
we  have  already  spent  so  many  pages  in  showing,  that 
young  animals  have  a  natural  propensity  to  muscular 
action,  and  without  which,  it  is  impossible  they  should 
make  well  formed  and  healthy  adults. 

Now  the  muscles  of  the  spine,  in  common  with  those 
of  the  other  parts  of  the  system,  require  almost  constant 
exercise  in  the  young,  during  their  waking  hours ;  and 
not  only  so,  their  inaction,  or  unnatural  contractions,  as 
we  have  abundantly  shown,  are  peculiarly  liable  to  be 
attended  with  the  most  unfortunate  consequences.  The 
peculiar  structure  of  this  part,  being  composed  of  alter- 
nate pieces  of  bone  and  cartilage,  renders  it  peculiarly 
liable  to  grow  out  of  shape  in  youth,  for  the  reasons  al- 
ready assigned,  and  when  once  a  distortion  of  this  col- 
umn commences  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  prevent  its 
ruining  the  symmetry  of  the  form,  and  still  more  so  to 
bring  it  back  to  its  original  position.  Distortions  of  this 
part,  indeed,  are  often  so  insiduous  and  gradual,  that  not 
a  friend,  nor  even  the  subject  herself  is  aware  of  it,  until 
it  has  made  such  progress  as  to  be  apparent  to  a  com- 
mon observer.  And  it  will  perhaps  astonish  some  of 
our  readers  to  know,  that  in  our  cities  probably  one  in 
six  are  thus  deformed. 

To  prevent  distortions  of  the  spine  and  shoulders  in 
young  females,  it  may  be  inferred  from  the  physiological 
principles  we  have  explained,  and  the  facts  we  have 


PREVENTION    OF    SPINAL    DISTORTION.  309 

stated,  that  it  is  necessary,  first,  to  avoid  tight  lacing  ; 
second,  to  avoid  improper  positions  at  school,  and  cer- 
tain modes  of  dress;  third,  that  the  seats  in  the  school 
room  should  be  provided  with  backs ;  fourth,  that  the 
time  usually  occupied  in  study  at  school  should  be  di- 
minished ;  and  fifth,  that  the  students  should  be  allowed 
to  take  abundance  of  exhilarating  exercise,  such  as  nature 
requires,  in  the  open  air. 

Every  seat  should  be  furnished  with  a  back,  not  how- 
ever with  a  narrow  strip  elevated  so  as  to  come  across 
the  shoulder  blades ;  but  a  continuous  support  from  the 
bench,  to  the  height  of  about  two  feet,  and  not  standing 
perpendicularly,  but  curved  a  little  backwards.  By  such 
a  back  the  spinal  column  is  properly  supported. 

School  rooms  ought  to  be  furnished  with  desks  at 
which  the  pupils  can  write  in  the  standing  posture. 
These  need  not  exceed  one  half,  or  perhaps  one  third 
the  number  of  pupils,  and  may  be  used  in  rotation. 

Four  or  five  hours  per  day,  spent  in  close  study  and 
recitations,  is  perhaps  as  much  time  as  can  be  employed, 
to  the  mental  and  corporeal  advantage  of  pupils  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  years  of  age.  And  young  children 
ought  not  to  be  kept  in  their  places  more  than  an  hour 
at  a  time,  after  which  some  little  pleasant  relaxation 
should  be  allowed,  and  in  which  the  teachers  should 
participate. 

Every  school  house  for  young  children  should,  if  pos^ 
sible,  have  a  play  ground,  furnished  with  imple- 
ments for  amusement,  adapted  to  their  ages.  And 
seminaries  for  young  ladies  should  be  provided  with  a 
romping  yard,  with  a  high  fence,  and  a  shed  on  one 
side,  for  exercise  in  bad  weather.  This  should  be  fur- 
nished with  bows  and  arrows7*and  such  other  instru- 
ments of  exciting  amusement  as  may  be  found  most 
agreeable  to  the  ages  of  the  pupils  ;  and  here  they 
should  be  allowed  to  enjoy  an  hour,  or  half  an  hour,  at 
proper  intervals,  several  times  during  the  day. 

If  these  suggestion  are  carried  into  general  practice, 
we  cannot  but  believe  that  the  number  of  deformed 
shoulders,  crooked  spines,  pale  faces,  and  consump- 
tive diseases,  would  be  greatly  diminished  among  our 
femajes, 


310  APPENDIX. 

Effects  of  stays  on  the  size,  vigor,  and  health  of  our 
species. — Besides  the  consequences  ascribed  to  the 
uses  of  stays,  in  the  foregoing  pages,  there  is  another 
effect  to  be  noticed,  which  so  far  as  we  know  has  been 
entirely  overlooked,  or  at  least  unnoticed,  by  writers  on 
the  subject  of  Physical  Education  ;  but  which  the  patri- 
ot and  philanthropist  cannot  but  consider  as  highly  im- 
portant. We  mean  the  effects  of  tight  lacing  on  our 
species  in  a  national  point  of  view. 

It  has  been  shown  in  the  preceding  pages,  that  when 
any  portion  of  the  animal  system,  and  especially  the  soft 
parts,  are  pressed,  nature  sets  herself  to  work,  and  be- 
cause she  cannot  remove  the  offending  cause,  avenges 
herself  of  the  insult,  by  removing  through  the  absorbent 
system,  the  parts  pressed  upon,  and  thus  relieves  her- 
self of  the  injury. 

Now  the  glands,  or  organs  which  secrete  the  fluids  pe- 
culiar to  the  several  parts  of  the  system,  are  particular- 
ly sensible  to  injuries  of  this  kind  ;  and  when  they  occur, 
nature  evinces  her  resentment  by  a  speedy  reduction,  or 
sometimes  by  the  entire  removal  of  the  offended  organ. 
In  case  the  gland  happens  to  be  one  which  nature  in- 
tended should  be  prominent,  the  continuance  of  the  pres- 
sure will  either  prevent  its  full  development,  or  if  al- 
ready developed,  will  reduce  it  to  the  common  level  of 
the  surface  where  it  is  situated.  These  are  well  known 
physiological  facts,  of  which  the  physician  in  his  prac- 
tice, and  the  common  observer  in  his  observations,  has 
undoubtedly  seen  numerous  instances. 

The  class  of  animals,  called  Mammalia,  as  already  ex- 
plained, receives  its  name  from  the  presence  of  certain 
glands,  called  the  lactescent,  which  are  common  to  all 
the  species,  and  which  are  designed  to  secrete  suste- 
nance, for  the  continuance  of  the  races  to  which  they 
severally  give  existence  ;  and  without  such  an  organiza- 
tion, no  tribe  of  animals  can  claim  a  place  in  the  Natural 
History  arrangement  of  this  most  important  division  of 
the  Animal  Kingdom. 

When  this  class  was  formed,  the  order  called  Bimana, 
or  two  handed,  of  which  order  Man  is  the  only  species, 
there  was  no  want  of  those  peculiar  qualifications  in  our 
race,  which  constitute  membership  in  it ;  but  at  the  pres- 


PREVENTION    OF    SPINAL    DISTORTION.  311 

ent  time,  this  order,  at  least  in  many  parts  of  our  coun- 
try, has  lost,  in  a  lamentable  degree,  and  in  some  speci- 
mens entirely,  those  marks  by  which  its  individuals  once 
claimed  aprominent  rank  among  Mammiferous  animals. 
And  if  the  use  of  stays,  corsets,  steel  busks,  and  their  ad- 
juvants, continue  to  inflict  their  marks  on  future  genera- 
tions, as  they  do  on  the  present,  the  order  Bimana  will 
undoubtedly  deserve  to  lose  its  place  in  the  Mammalia 
class  :  since  there  will  ensue  an  entire  extinction  of  those 
natural  organs,  which  form  the  chief  characteristic  of 
this  class,  and  from  which  its  name  is  derived. 

The  loss  of  membership  among  the  Mammalia,  it  is 
true,  is  of  little  importance,  except  to  the  naturalist ;  but 
to  the  patriot,  and  moralist,  the  extinction  of  those  prom- 
inent traits  which  once  distinguished  the  gender  of  our 
species,  cannot  but  create  feelings  of  commisseration, 
and  regret,  since  such  a  deformity  not  only  involves  a 
violation  of  the  laws  of  nature  and  morality  ;  the  first  by 
suppressing  the  growth  of  important  parts  of  the  animal 
system,  and  the  second  by  the  hazard  of  health  and  life 
as  a  consequence  ;  but  it  also  inevitably  leads  to  a  dete- 
rioration of  the  species,  with  respect  to  statue,  form  and 
constitution. 

It  is  true  that  stays  are  no  recent  invention,  having 
been  known  to  the  nations  of  Europe  before  our  fathers 
and  mothers  came  to  these  shores  ;  and  therefore  it  per- 
haps may  be  objected  that  the  consequences  we  have 
attributed  to  them,  may  with  the  same  probability  have 
happened  formerly  as  now.  But  the  construction  of 
this  article  of  dress,  though  called  by  the  same  name,  is 
materially  different  from  what  it  formerly  was,  as  any 
one  may  convince  herself  by  hunting  up,  and  examining 
those  worn  by  her  grandmother.  These  will  be  found 
so  constructed,  as  not  in  the  least  to  interfere  with  the 
expansion  of  the  upper  half  of  the  bust ;  while  those  of 
the  present  day,  it  may  be  presumed  from  the  forms 
moulded  into  them,  are  so  made  as  either  to  present  a 
barrier  of  whale  bone,  and  steel,  to  any  unequal  expan- 
sion of  the  parts  which  they  encompass  $  or  if  any  such 
provision  is  allowed,  it  must  be  rather  in  the  region  of 
the  shoulder  blades,  than  in  that  of  the  anterior  portion  of 
the  bust. 


312 


APPENDIX. 


The  fact,  that  the  female  form  has  undergone  a  very 
material  change  within  the  last  20  years,  and  that  this 
change  has  been  caused  by  the  pressure  of  stays  on  parts 
of  the  system  which  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the 
nutrition,  and  consequent  growth,  and  health  of  our  spe- 
cies, cannot,  and  will  not,  be  denied  by  any  competent 
witness.  And  that  we  shall  become  a  stinted,  puny,  and 
short  lived  race,  -in  consequence,  it  requires  no  more  in- 
spiration to  predict,  than  it  does  to  foretell  that  starvation 
will  produce  dwarfs  in  infancy,  and  emaciation  in  adults. 

The  effects,  indeed,  are  already  visible  in  the  number 
of  pale,  dwarfish,  and  crooked  children,  which  may  be 
seen  in  the  schools  and  streets  of  all  our  cities,  and  ma- 
ny of  our  smaller  towns  and  villages.  And  whoever, 
having  been  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  rising  gen- 
eration, will  contrast,  so  far  as  she  can  recollect,  the  as- 
pect of  a  school  composed  of  both  sexes,  at  the  present 
day,  with  the  appearance  of  the  same  number  and  ages, 
15  or  20  years  ago,  cannot,  we  think,  but  be  convinced, 
that  there  has  been  a  great  deterioration  in  our  youth, 
both  in  respect  to  form,  size,  and  healthy  looks. 

And  who,  we  enquire,  would  not  expect  to  see  such  a 


Fig.  136. 


Fig.  137. 


Veniis  de  Medicis. 


A  Modern  Lady. 

change  in  our  race,  when  they  behold  such  a  metamor- 
phosis in  the  better  half  of  our  species,  as  to  have  produ- 
ced from  a  stock  like  that  represented  by  Fig.  136,  a 


PREVENTION    OF    SPINAL    DISTORTION.  313 

progeny  like  that  shown  by  Fig.  137.  In  the  first,  the 
parts  which  are  essential  to  the  nutrition  and  growth  of 
incipient  respiratory  beings,  are  so  developed  as  to  in- 
sure a  full  supply  of  lactescent  secretion ;  while  in  the 
second,  the  corresponding  parts  present  a  mere  pre- 
tense, a  nullity,  a  source  of  starvation,  rather  than  one  of 
sustenance,  to  the  nascent  beings,  who  are  so  unfortu- 
nate as  to  be  thrown  upon  such  cotton  wool  resources 
of  existence. 

But  what  possible  motive  could  have  induced  the  fe- 
males of  the  present  age,  and  especially  those  of  these 
United  States,  (where  ultraism  in  respect  to  this  deform- 
ity is  carried  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in  any  other 
country,)  what,  we  ask,  could  have  moved  those  among 
us,  who  have  the  first  care  of  the  species,  and  who  ought 
to  be  our  examples  in  moral  rectitude  and  conservative 
discretion,  to  have  thus  deprived  themselves  of  the  power 
of  fulfilling  one  of  the  very  first  of  nature's  laws  ? 

Can  it  be  for  the  purpose  of  making  themselves  more 
agreeable,  and  more  acceptable  to  the  lords  of  creation  ? 
Then  certainly  their  motives  ought  to  meet  with  the 
law  of  kindness,  and  the  tortures  through  which  they  are 
willing  to  pass  in  order  to  arrive  at  perfection — the  sym- 
pathy and  commiseration  of  those  for  whom  such  perils 
are  encountered.  But  whatever  motives  might  have  led 
to  a  deformity  so  unnatural,  it  is  certain  that  the  Crea- 
tor intended,  that  the  "  noblest  work  of  his  hands,"  should 
possess  the  most  perfect  forms ;  and  therefore,  except 
to  a  depraved  and  vitiated  taste,  such  forms  will  ever  be 
most  admired,  and  most  acceptable  to  those  for  whom 
they  were  designed. 

It  is  true,  that  there  are  parts  of  our  country  where 
the  practice  of  excessive  lacing,  and  therefore  its  degen- 
erating consequences,  do  not  exist ;  and  from  whence  we 
are  happy  to  know  that  many  of  the  daughters  of  unso- 
phisticated nature,  are  transplanted  into  our  cities,  there 
to  become  the  fostering  angels  of  a  renovated  species. 
And  were  it  not  that  such  resources  still  remain,  the  con- 
sequences of  fashion  in  all  our  cities,  would  have  been  by 
far  more  degenerating  than  they  are  at  present.  Indeed 
we  cannot  but  believe,  that  were  our  large  towns  walled, 
and  their  inhabitants  under  the  necessity  of  depending 
27 


314  APPENDIX, 

on  each  other  for  the  continuance  of  our  species,  that  un- 
der the  dominion  of  the  present  code  of  fashions,  the 
human  race  within  their  walls  would  finally,  not  only  be- 
come perfect  Lilliputians  in  size  and  mind,  but  that  they 
would  be  known  to  future  ages  only  as  a  fossil  race, 
the  types  of  which  would  no  where  be  found  on  our  earth 
in  the  recent  state.  But  we  must  at  present  leave  this 
subject,  we  hope,  to  resume  it  again  in  a  treatise  more 
particularly  directed  to  Mothers  ;  and  containing  a  de- 
tail of  facts  and  circumstances,  calculated  to  enlighten 
the  minds,  and  touch  the  feelings  of  those  who  have  the 
welfare  of  their  country  and  their  species  at  heart. 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 
University  of  California  Library 

or  to  the 

NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
Bldg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698  ___ 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

•  2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 
(510)642-6753 

.    1-year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing 

books  to  NRLF 

•  Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  mad 
days  prior  to  due  date. 


^ 

JUN  2  7  2003 


12,000(11/95) 


